Enabling Safe Rural Water Services in Kenya
Lead Research Organisation:
University of Oxford
Department Name: Geography - SoGE
Abstract
Four out of five people in rural Sub-Saharan Africa do not have access to safe drinking water. The international community made high-level commitments to secure access to safe drinking water for all by 2030 (Sustainable Development Goal 6.1). This ambition reflects the importance of safely managed water services for disrupting disease transmission in communities. In low-income, rural settings water is often accessed through hand-pumps or small piped water systems. While access to taps and handpumps has improved for many rural communities over the last few decades, the quality of the water being provided by this infrastructure is often not managed. And for most households, treating water themselves is not a reasonable option because of the costs and time requirement.
Water treatment technologies that are designed for installation in decentralised water systems - either in the distribution system or at points of collection (community shared taps and handpumps) - can reduce the risk of diarrheal disease and improve public health outcomes. So far, research on supply-level rural water treatment has evaluated filtration and disinfection (chlorination, UVC radiation) methods, focusing on technological effectiveness. Beyond the technology development, however, there is a need for further research to understand how treatment interventions can be implemented broadly and sustainably. Particularly, key challenges related to supply chains, operation and maintenance, and financing must be addressed.
'Enabling Safe Rural Water Services in Kenya' is a solution-oriented research project that will bring together water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector stakeholders to develop a new approach for implementing supply-level treatment in rural water systems. This approach will focus on enabling sustainable operation and maintenance of water services. Implementation of the approach will begin in two counties in Kenya and will expand under the direction of the Kenyan Water Services Regulatory Board. The purpose of this work is to systemically and sustainably improve drinking water safety in rural community and school settings in Kenya. It will generate learnings that can be adapted and applied more broadly to help advance universal access to safe drinking water in rural areas through supply-level treatment.
Water treatment technologies that are designed for installation in decentralised water systems - either in the distribution system or at points of collection (community shared taps and handpumps) - can reduce the risk of diarrheal disease and improve public health outcomes. So far, research on supply-level rural water treatment has evaluated filtration and disinfection (chlorination, UVC radiation) methods, focusing on technological effectiveness. Beyond the technology development, however, there is a need for further research to understand how treatment interventions can be implemented broadly and sustainably. Particularly, key challenges related to supply chains, operation and maintenance, and financing must be addressed.
'Enabling Safe Rural Water Services in Kenya' is a solution-oriented research project that will bring together water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector stakeholders to develop a new approach for implementing supply-level treatment in rural water systems. This approach will focus on enabling sustainable operation and maintenance of water services. Implementation of the approach will begin in two counties in Kenya and will expand under the direction of the Kenyan Water Services Regulatory Board. The purpose of this work is to systemically and sustainably improve drinking water safety in rural community and school settings in Kenya. It will generate learnings that can be adapted and applied more broadly to help advance universal access to safe drinking water in rural areas through supply-level treatment.
Technical Summary
This project takes an implementation science approach to the development of an institutional intervention that will increase access to safe drinking-water in rural Kenya. More specifically, a knowledge-to-action (K2A) process model supported by structurationist systems theory is used to guide engagement with government, funders, practitioners, researchers, and communities in an action research process. The K2A model is derived from planned action theory and is intended to structure deliberate efforts to work with stakeholders to intervene in systemic institutional dynamics. This approach is a departure from existing water treatment intervention approaches, which centre around particular technologies and predominantly use deterministic framings in an effort to predict or evaluate specific intervention outcomes. The objective is to develop an enabling environment that is not technology-specific, thereby allowing a modular approach to treatment services that is adaptable to community and environmental settings. This is a solution-oriented research project that will network water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector stakeholders to enable knowledge co-production.
Key outputs of the project will include a strengthened community of rural water treatment implementers linked via an online forum to facilitate ongoing knowledge exchange and collaboration; a practical guide for implementing rural water treatment using an approach that is modular and adaptable to varied local contexts; and a regulatory model outlining key changes in rules and resourcing needed to enable inclusion of water safety management in rural development. The project will also contribute to academic discourse by advancing literature on a) operation and maintenance challenges in rural WASH programming and b) development of institutional interventions using an action research learning history approach.
Key outputs of the project will include a strengthened community of rural water treatment implementers linked via an online forum to facilitate ongoing knowledge exchange and collaboration; a practical guide for implementing rural water treatment using an approach that is modular and adaptable to varied local contexts; and a regulatory model outlining key changes in rules and resourcing needed to enable inclusion of water safety management in rural development. The project will also contribute to academic discourse by advancing literature on a) operation and maintenance challenges in rural WASH programming and b) development of institutional interventions using an action research learning history approach.
Publications
Charles K
(2023)
Rapid water quality field tests: Data revolution or dead end?
in PLOS Water
Katrina Charles
(2024)
Opportunities to advance water safety through regulation of rural water services
Laauwen M
(2024)
Reinforcing Feedbacks for Sustainable Implementation of Rural Drinking-Water Treatment Technology
in ACS ES&T Water
Nowicki S
(2023)
Water chemistry poses health risks as reliance on groundwater increases: A systematic review of hydrogeochemistry research from Ethiopia and Kenya.
in The Science of the total environment
Robert Gakubia
(2025)
Rolling-out rural water regulation in Kenya: a review of progress and key processes
| Title | Fair Water? museum exhibition |
| Description | Museum exhibition at Oxford University Museum of Natural History on 'Fair Water?' exploring water justice issues from across my research on water quality, climate resilience, drinking water and intrahousehold dynamics. Includes digital and physical interactives. Targeting high school and general public. |
| Type Of Art | Artistic/Creative Exhibition |
| Year Produced | 2023 |
| Impact | 90,000 visitors since launch in November 2023 (3 months), with exhibition to run until September 2024. Exploring potential for exhibition to travel to the National Museum of Kenya and UNICEF HQ in New York. |
| URL | https://oumnh.ox.ac.uk/fair-water |
| Description | Internship scheme for young water professionals |
| Geographic Reach | Local/Municipal/Regional |
| Policy Influence Type | Influenced training of practitioners or researchers |
| Description | Presentation to international network of Regulators on application of sanitary inspection in rural water supply management |
| Geographic Reach | Multiple continents/international |
| Policy Influence Type | Influenced training of practitioners or researchers |
| Description | Rural WSS Regulatory Framework Joint Working Group |
| Geographic Reach | Africa |
| Policy Influence Type | Participation in a guidance/advisory committee |
| Description | Rural drinking water safety management service provision training |
| Geographic Reach | Multiple continents/international |
| Policy Influence Type | Influenced training of practitioners or researchers |
| URL | https://www.uptimewater.org/ |
| Description | WHO Small Systems Guidance |
| Geographic Reach | Multiple continents/international |
| Policy Influence Type | Contribution to new or improved professional practice |
| URL | https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240088740 |
| Description | JMP/GLAAS review of indicators for global monitoring of climate resilient WASH |
| Amount | $198,000 (USD) |
| Organisation | World Health Organization (WHO) |
| Sector | Public |
| Country | Switzerland |
| Start | 03/2024 |
| End | 03/2026 |
| Description | SoGE Equipment Bid |
| Amount | £2,358 (GBP) |
| Organisation | University of Oxford |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Start | 02/2025 |
| End | 03/2025 |
| Description | Global Community of Practice on Decentralised Water Treatment |
| Organisation | PATH |
| Country | United States |
| Sector | Charity/Non Profit |
| PI Contribution | Building on a side-event at the UNC Water and Health Conference in late 2022, which was organized in the lead-up to applying for the MRC-PHIND funding, the research team joined with members of Emory University's Center for Global Safe WASH Community of Practice (COP) for WASH in Health Care Facilities to establish a related but more focused CoP on 'Decentralized chlorine use for water treatment and infection prevention and control'. The research team co-produced terms of reference for this CoP and along with other steering committee members, confirmed representatives from PATH and EOS International to co-lead the CoP for the first year starting in June 2023. The research team continue to be members of the CoP steering committee, with responsibility to shape the CoP agenda and identify leading researchers/practitioners to feature in CoP sessions. Steering committee members meet quarterly, a few weeks prior to each CoP session. The steering committee is comprised of leading academic, civil society, and private sector actors. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Starting in June 2023, representatives from EOS International and PATH took leadership as a co-secretariat of the CoP. The steering committee will revisit these roles in Q3 of 2024, following a year of joint CoP management. The secretariat is responsible for organizing meetings and setting agendas, incorporating new members and maintaining the member list, serving as a central liaison for technical requests, and managing the overall direction of the CoP through consultation with partners. |
| Impact | Participation in the CoP is voluntary and open to civil society organizations, private-sector companies, and individuals who are involved, or interested, in the generation and use of chlorine products for disinfection and water treatment. Collaboration is key to the success of the CoP, and we welcome a diverse set of perspectives to be represented, including those from public, private, and civil society sectors. The CoP currently has 290 regular members who are registered to receive CoP updates and webinar links. We seek to create a diverse, inclusive, and equitable platform that fosters open and honest communication and encourages a broad range of views and backgrounds. The CoP is structured as a single convening body of members with four annual virtual meetings. Additional, topic-specific side meetings are held to allow for deeper dives into participants' topics, research, and discussion. Three virtual meetings and one in-person meeting have been held since the commencement of the CoP in June 2023. One or more presentations on a technical topic or project is included in each virtual meeting, and these may come from private-sector manufacturers or service providers, government representatives, or implementing organizations. The virtual meetings and calls also serve as a venue for members to network with other members and to explore opportunities for collaboration and funding opportunities. |
| Start Year | 2023 |
| Description | Just Water Alliance |
| Organisation | Australian National University (ANU) |
| Department | Crawford School of Public Policy |
| Country | Australia |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | Nowicki participated in a workshop hosted by the Water Justice Hub at the Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National University to share research findings on delivering safe drinking water services in challenging rural contexts in Kenya. This involved presenting work, acting as discussants for workshop sessions, contributing to the terms of reference for a transdisciplinary Just Water Alliance, and being interviewed for video and podcast segments to further share learning from the alliance with a broader public audience. It has led to ongoing meetings with alliance members, working on a viewpoint paper together, and collaborating on delivering a Water Justice Day event. |
| Collaborator Contribution | The Just Water Alliance is a global collective of custodians, researchers, advocates, and practitioners united by a shared mission: to ensure equitable access to water for all communities. Our work centers on amplifying transformative stories and fostering justice that strengthens connections between people, water, land, and the living world. Founded in June 2024 on Ngunnawal Country in Canberra, Australia, the Alliance emerged from the powerful exchange of experiences and insights during the Sharing, Listening, Reflecting, and Creating workshop. This collaboration inspired an ongoing commitment to reimagine systems, confront imbalances of power, and promote solutions tailored to the unique needs of diverse communities. Guided by respect for Indigenous leadership, environmental health, and the transformative power of stories, we take a holistic approach to addressing water justice. We work across disciplines, engage globally and locally, and continuously evolve through learning and collaboration. |
| Impact | Nowicki contributed learnings from the Enabling Safe Rural Water Service Project to: Engagement activities: contributed to an episode on the The Water Justice Podcast and presented a session at Water Justice Day 2025 event. This collaboration is transdisicplinary and involves partners from economics, anthropology, engineering, environmental science, geography, public health, law, and visual arts disciplines. |
| Start Year | 2024 |
| Description | Fair Water? Schools Day |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Schools |
| Results and Impact | On February 28th, the research team participated in the 'Fair Water? Schools Day', convened by the FCDO-funded REACH Water Security Programme in collaboration with the Oxford University Museum Of Natural History. As part of the event, pupils from more than 10 schools in Oxfordshire, Wiltshire, Berkshire, Buckinghamshire and Gloucestershire were joined virtually by 3 schools from Cameroon. Pupils learnt about a range of topics including water security, water quality, and climate modelling. The research team talked about the importance and complexity of water quality and water treatment in interventions to improve drinking water services for rural populations. Students who attended in-person and online from Cameroon asked questions about how water quality health impacts are measured, how water quality changes over time, and how risks can be understood and managed for the borehole / water supplies at their schools. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| Description | Rural water supply sector stakeholder workshop |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Professional Practitioners |
| Results and Impact | We convened the Safe Services for Small Water Supplies in Kenya full-day workshop in Nairobi on Tuesday, January 30th. The workshop was jointly convened by the research team and project partner FundiFix, with additional support from the Kenyan water sector regulator, co-funding from the FCDO-funded REACH Water Security Programme based out of the University of Oxford, and co-funding from NWO-funded RiskPOOL project based out of Wageningen University. We invited representatives from organisations who are working on improving water services in rural settings in Kenya, as well as organisations that fund or supply goods to the rural water sector. Particularly, we want to bring together those who are involved with implementing water treatment or are considering moving forward with water treatment in these settings. There were 45 participants from 22 organisations. The workshop focused on three interactive sessions: Developing guidance for implementing decentralised water treatment technologies, Regulation of small-water-supplies in Kenya: progress and prospects, and Working together to manage different types of rural water service provision risks. For many participants, this workshop represented the first opportunity that their organization has had to speak directly with the Kenyan water sector regulator to understand the national vision and progress on introducing new models for rural water regulation. Two key project outputs were shared with participants during the workshop: the discussion paper on rural water safety regulation and the reinforcing feedback loops for decentralized water treatment draft research paper (under review at the time of writing). Written outputs and audio recordings of breakout group activities during the workshop have been collected to feed into two additional project outputs that are under development: the decentralised chlorination implementation guide and policy brief on creating an enabling environment for rural water treatment. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| Description | Sharing, Listening, Reflecting, and Creating Workshop |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | This was the inception workshop for the Just Water Alliance, separately described under Collaboration and Partnerships. It initiated a new knowledge exchange collaboration in the form of an alliance of researchers, practitioners, and indigenous activists working towards just water service delivery globally. I presented learnings from research on delivering safe drinking water services in challenging rural contexts in Kenya and served as a discussants for other sessions in which participants presented about safe drinking water challenges in a range of contexts from Argentina, Nepal, Australia and elsewhere. During the workshop we also agreed terms of reference for our transdisciplinary Just Water Alliance, created visual art to represent our discussions, and recorded video and podcast segments to further share learning from the alliance with a broader public audience. So far, collaboration between the alliance members has afforded valueable insight for reflection on my research priorities and plans, and led to participation (myself and 'Enabling Safe Rural Water Services in Kenya' project sub-contractor, FundiFix Ltd) in a Water Justice Day event hosted in Canberra in January 2025 by the ANU Crawford School of Public Policy Water Justice Hub. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| URL | https://www.justwateralliance.org/ |
| Description | Water Justice Day 2025 |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | Water Justice Day, hosted by the Water Justice Hub and the Just Water Alliance, was a world first and a special global event dedicated to exploring and responding to critical water justice issues. By gathering leaders, researchers, advocates, decision makers and community members from around the world, the event aimed to support dialogue, shares insights, and inspires actions toward equitable water access and sustainable water futures for all. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2025 |
| URL | https://www.justwateralliance.org/2025 |
| Description | Water Justice Podcast |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A broadcast e.g. TV/radio/film/podcast (other than news/press) |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
| Results and Impact | This activity was an episode prepared for the Water Justice Hub podcast, with four guest researchers from across the globe, who had convened in Canberra attending a workshop on Drinking Water Quality - the Sharing, Listening, Reflecting, and Creating workshop submitted separately as an Engagement Activity. The episode features: Gabriela Sacco, the Director of the Institute of Global Dialogue and Culture of Encounter; Nina Lansbury, Associate Professor from the School of Public Health at the University of Queensland; myself, Saskia Nowicki, Research Associate in environmental systems science from the School of Geography and the Environment at the University of Oxford; and Sera Young, Professor of Anthropology and Global Health at Northwestern University in Chicago. We discuss how we navigate the complex, practical realities of our work, such as managing competing interests of various stakeholders and overcoming shortfalls in data collection. We also share some of our research findings and discuss whether the world is on-track to meet the Sustainable Development Goal for drinking water for 2030. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| URL | https://shows.acast.com/water-justice-podcast/episodes/can-we-achieve-sdg6-with-gabriela-sacco-nina-... |