National Environmental Isotope Facility (NEIF)
Lead Research Organisation:
British Geological Survey
Department Name: UNLISTED
Abstract
Abstracts are not currently available in GtR for all funded research. This is normally because the abstract was not required at the time of proposal submission, but may be because it included sensitive information such as personal details.
People |
ORCID iD |
| Phillippa Ascough (Principal Investigator) |
Publications
Adams JL
(2015)
Aged riverine particulate organic carbon in four UK catchments.
in The Science of the total environment
Allen C
(2011)
Last glacial-interglacial sea-ice cover in the SW Atlantic and its potential role in global deglaciation
in Quaternary Science Reviews
Amesbury M
(2012)
Can rapidly accumulating Holocene peat profiles provide sub-decadal resolution proxy climate data?
in Journal of Quaternary Science
Amesbury, M. J
(2017)
Widespread Biological Response to Rapid Warming on the Antarctic Peninsula
in Current Biology
| Description | Radiocarbon dating is the most versatile technique for scientists seeking to precisely date the timing of events and rates of processes in the history of humans and earth systems over the last 50,000 years. Natural abundance and 'bomb' radiocarbon also have wide applications in quantifying the movement of carbon in the environment. The NERC Radiocarbon Facility (NRCF http://www.c14.org.uk/) is internationally recognised and supports, participates in and initiates globally competitive science at its two nodes NRCF-Oxford (NRCF-O), within the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit (ORAU), University of Oxford and NRCF-East Kilbride (NRCF-E), hosted by the Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre (SUERC), East Kilbride. The joint Facility provides a comprehensive service for the NERC research community, including Universities and NERC Centres BGS, CEH, BAS, NOC across a wide range of science areas, including Earth, Marine, Terrestrial and Freshwater, Atmospheric and Polar Science and Science-based Archaeology: • Expertise across a wide spectrum of radiocarbon techniques & applications • Specialist advice at all stages of projects from project inception, applications and grant proposals, field sampling, sample storage and preparation, to data interpretation and publication • Technical developments, often developed collaboratively, to provide leading edge and unique research opportunities • Access to state-of-the art equipment, including three accelerator mass spectrometers (AMS) • Training of students and visiting researchers, including project-customised practical laboratory experience, residential radiocarbon courses, and the unique opportunity to experience the diverse yet recent technologies of the AMS used by NRCF |
| Exploitation Route | The Facility exists to provide analytical support and scientific expertise for NERC approved projects throughout the UK. Therefore all the findings relate to these projects (c 40 per year). The Facility also continuously develops new methods in order to provide UK scientists with cutting-edge techniques for the radiocarbon applications in their projects. Recent examples include unique techniques to sample greenhouse gases for NERC Arctic Research Programme grants. |
| Sectors | Agriculture Food and Drink Education Energy Environment Culture Heritage Museums and Collections |
| Description | The award relates to the 5-yearly renewed funding for the NERC Radiocarbon Facility - East Kilbride node. NRCF-supported projects cover a wide range of science areas, identified by NERC as societal challenges affecting policy and environmental management. Benefitting from natural resources: Ocean circulation models, soil stability and carbon turnover, freshwater as conduits for carbon transport, storage and release; groundwater modelling and pollution. Highlights: Roberts S, Monien P, Foster L, Loftfield J, Hocking E, Schnetger B..... Hodgson D, (2017). Past penguin colony responses to explosive volcanism on the Antarctic Peninsula. Nature Communications, Dargie GC, Lewis SL, Lawson IT, Mitchard ET, Page SE, Bocko YE, Ifo SA. (2017). Age, extent and carbon storage of the central Congo Basin peatland complex.. Nature, 542 (7639), pp. 86-90 Campeau A, Bishop KH, Billett MF, Garnett MH, Laudon H, Leach JA, Nilsson MB... Wallin MB. (2017). Aquatic export of young dissolved and gaseous carbon from a pristine boreal fen: Implications for peat carbon stock stability.. Global change biology, 23 (12), pp. 5523-5536 Avery R, Xuan C, Kemp A, Bull J, Cotterill C, Fielding J..... Croudace I, (2017). A new Holocene record of geomagnetic secular variation from Windermere, UK. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Cooper M, Estop-Aragonés C, Fisher J, Thierry A, Garnett M, Charman D..... Hartley I, (2017). Limited contribution of permafrost carbon to methane release from thawing peatlands. Nature Climate Change, Howe J, Piotrowski A, Hu R, Bory A, (2017). Reconstruction of east-west deep water exchange in the low latitude Atlantic Ocean over the past 25,000 years. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Other work includes important reconstructions of global and regional sea-level changes, particularly valuable in the face of current climate change, located around the globe, e.g. Falkland Islands, reconstructions of palaeoenvironmental climate variation from Chile to Scotland, including Morocco, dust fluxes in the Sahara, Mediterranean rainfall, the erosion of organic carbon from the Andes, and it's impact on global CO2 fluxes, and vegetation in the Ecuadorian Andes. Our work has helped understanding of how organic matter and carbon affect our living planet, including how soil cycles, and the global scale movement of carbon eroded from the entire terrestrial environment. Finally, we have been heavily involved in pushing the boundaries of measurement, sampling, and sample handling, including quality assurance in dating the deglaciation of the British-Irish ice sheet, dating pollen concentrates, measuring ancient dissolved methane in tiny quantities previously inaccessible to the type of science we undertake. |
| First Year Of Impact | 2017 |
| Sector | Agriculture, Food and Drink,Education,Environment,Culture, Heritage, Museums and Collections |
| Impact Types | Cultural Societal Economic Policy & public services |
| Description | NERC CASE studentship |
| Amount | £73,668 (GBP) |
| Organisation | Natural Environment Research Council |
| Sector | Public |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Start | 09/2017 |
| End | 09/2020 |
| Description | BRITICE-CHRONO, NE/J0097681/1, PI= Clark. "BRITICE-CHRONO: Constraining rates and style of marine-influenced ice sheet decay." |
| Organisation | University of Sheffield |
| Department | Department of Biomedical Science |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | Radiocarbon dating the retreat of the last British and Irish Ice Sheet including the quantification of sample-specific radiocarbon background correction factors for shell and foraminiferal samples. |
| Collaborator Contribution | fieldwork (terrestrial and marine), mapping, sample collection including sample identification by x-radiograph and binocular microscopy, ice modelling, bayesian analysis, cosmogenic isotope analysis, optically stimulated luminescence. |
| Impact | chiverell et al 2013 doi: 10.1002/jqs.2616 hambrey and allean 2016 colour atlas of glacial phenomena evans et al 2016 doi: 10.1002/jqs.2833 chiverrell et al 2016 doi: 10.1002/jqs.2864 smedley et al 2017 doi: 10.1002/jqs.2922 sejrup et al 2016 doi: 10.1130/G37652.1 Peters et al 2016 QSR 140, 101-124 Bradwell T and Stoker MS 2014 doi:10.1111/bor.1211 small et al 2017 |
| Start Year | 2012 |
| Description | NE/N002806/1, PI= Waldron, "Addressing a significant knowledge gap in fluvial system atmospheric CO2 efflux: the contribution from karst landscapes" |
| Organisation | University of Glasgow |
| Department | Division of Infrastructure & Environment |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | Radiocarbon dating of soil and water DOC, DIC, CO2, including the use of innovative technologies and techniques (e.g. molecular sieve trapping of CO2). |
| Collaborator Contribution | Fieldwork, sample selection, stable isotope analyses, catchment studies, environmental geochemistry |
| Impact | No outputs yet. |
| Start Year | 2015 |
| Description | NE/N015460/1, PI=Street, "Plant nutrition as Earth System Science: understanding the links between plant nutrient gain and soil carbon storage." |
| Organisation | University of Edinburgh |
| Department | School of Geosciences Edinburgh |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | Dr Mark Garnett is Deputy Head of the NERC Radiocarbon Facility (Environment) at East Kilbride. He has worked for 12 years applying radiocarbon based techniques to investigate terrestrial C dynamics. His research has particularly focused on investigating C cycling in soils and peatlands through radiocarbon dating of CO2 emissions, which has involved the development of novel molecular sieve sampling techniques. He has published 36 ISI papers. Dr. Garnett will provide support at all stages of the project, and has already assisted in development of a prototype depleted labelling system. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Dr Torgny Näsholm is a molecular ecologist and is the world leader in plant organic nutrition. He has published multiple highly cited papers and reviews on the topic, and is involved in developing commercial amino-acid based fertilisers in Boreal ecosystems. Dr Näsholm is a key partner and will host the PI in the Umea Plant Science Centre, in order to develop the use of Arabidopsis mutants with CDER labelling experiments. Prof Mathew Williams will host the fellowship at Edinburgh, and has over 20 years' experience in quantifying and understanding the terrestrial carbon cycle, with a particular focus on the response of Arctic ecosystems to warming. He was recently PI on a NERC Arctic Research Programme grant understanding carbon cycle linkages in permafrost ecosystems. He is a world leader in developing model frameworks to up-scale ecological process knowledge and thus tackle the major challenges in understanding Earth System responses to global change. Prof Williams was a visiting scientist at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, from August 2012 - June 2013, and has a global network of collaborators in coupled C-N modelling. Dr Gaius R. Shaver is a senior scientist in the Ecosystems Centre at the MBL , Woods Hole, USA and is PI of the Arctic LTER at Toolik Lake Alaska. Dr Shaver will provide access to archived plant material from long-term fertilisation experiments at Toolik Lake. These samples are required for radiocarbon analysis of organic nitrogen use in-situ and the availability of this material provides a unique opportunity. There are no other 35 year time series of plant material from fertilisation experiments of this kind. Dr Shaver has also offered his considerable expertise in Arctic plant nutrition. Prof Stuart F.S Chapin III is Emeritus Professor in the Department of Biology and Wildlife at the Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks. He is a pre-eminent Arctic ecologist, and has made significant contributions to Arctic ecosystem science across a wide range of research areas. In 1993 he published the seminal paper on the preferential use of organic nitrogen in non-mycorrhizal Arctic plants. Prof Chapin will provide archived plant material from fertilisation experiments he initiated at Toolik Lake in 1976 for use in this project. Dr Paul Hill is a Research Lecturer in the School of Environment, Natural Resources and Geography, at Bangor University. He has expertise in using radiocarbon labelling techniques to understand turnover and uptake of amino acids in soils. Dr Hill will work with the PI to compare results from continuous depleted labelling (CDER) experiments with enriched isotope techniques, and will facilitate access to analytical capabilities at Bangor (including amino acid characterisation of soils). Dr Edward B. Rastetter is a senior scientist with profound expertise and insights into ecosystems C and N modelling. Dr Rastetter will facilitate access to the MBL-MEL model, and will work with the PI to develop models to interpret and generalising results from the archived plant study. Prof Andrew Tyler is head of the School of Biological and Environmental Sciences at Stirling University and will loan a field portable cavity-ring down (CRD) mass spectrometer, a key piece of equipment needed for field and lab experiments. |
| Impact | no outputs yet |
| Start Year | 2016 |
| Description | NE/N020146/1, PI= Mills, "Resistance and resilience of mountain soils in the face of change" |
| Organisation | Lancaster University |
| Department | Lancaster Environment Centre |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | Dr Mark Garnett, NERC RCL - an expert in radiocarbon, known to Dr mills through a collaborative project in Switzerland using the molecular sieve technique, this will create a new level of synergy, and Dr Garnett will be tightly involved in the first application of 14CH4 sampling in mountain systems. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Dr Niall McNamara, CEH Lancaster - expert in terrestrial biogeochemistry, in particular these of stable isotope techniques to explore CH4 emissions and uptake in soils Dr Jeanette Whitaker, CEH Lancaster - terrestrial ecologist, with expertise in the use of labelled and non-labelled substrates, Jeanette will form a core of the CEH collaboration of the interpretation of stable isotope data from the 13C- labelleding exercises Dr Rob Griffiths, CEH Wallingford - known to Dr Mills, and a co-worker on a large-scale project during Dr Mills' PhD, the current proposal represents an opportunity to create a focussed collaboration and integrate Dr Griffiths' expertise in a molecular ecology Prof Pete Smith, Aberdeen University - biogeochemical modeller, Prof. Smith will bring expertise to the project in maximising data output to the ECOSSE model. Dr Andrea Britton - an expert in alpine ecology, Dr Mills' and Dr Britton already collaborate, including a recently awarded STARS PhD on snowbed ecology, and the current proposal will strengthen these links considerably. Dr Britton will bring, along with her expertise, her long-running experiment in Culardoch, cairngorms. Dr Vegard Martinsen - an expert in alpine biogeochemistry, and experienced user of radiocarbon techniques, Dr Martinsen will bring his field samples, and knowledge of the Northern and continental alpine to the project, creating a new international collaboration with Dr Mills. Dr Frank Hagedorn - an expert in biogeochemistry, especially under snow, Dr Hagedorn is an existing collaborator of Dr Mills, and will bring field samples as well as his extensive knowledge and expertise. |
| Impact | No outputs yet |
| Start Year | 2016 |
| Description | NE/P002722/1, PI=Wookey, "Will more productive Arctic ecosystems sequester less soil carbon? A key role for priming in the rhizosphere ('PRIMETIME')" |
| Organisation | Heriot-Watt University |
| Department | Life Sciences |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | Garnett (PP) is Deputy Head of the NERC Radiocarbon Facility. He is included explicitly as a team member here because of his leading involvement in driving the development of 14C techniques to be applied in the project. He will be involved in designing and providing the 14CO2 sampling gear, retrieving and graphitising the samples, interpreting the results, and co-drafting the research outputs. He brings substantial 'in-kind' contributions, and access to world-class facilities / expertise. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Investigator effort As Principal Investigator (PI), Wookey will spend ~5.6 hrs per week on the project, covering grant administration, guidance and support to the Researcher Co-Investigator (Res Co-I) (Street), involvement in field campaigns, liaising with Co-Investigators (Co-Is) and Project Partners (PPs), and developing an international network on the consequences of both unmanaged and managed (i.e. for re-wilding and native woodland development) vegetation shifts on soil C stocks. Wookey has expert knowledge of the Abisko region, and strong connections with several Nordic programmes and institutions, which will enable the impact of this work to be maximised. Johnson (Co-I, Aberdeen) will spend 1.9 hours per week and be directly involved in field campaigns and in the molecular analysis of fungal communities for all work-packages (WPs), in close association with PP Lindahl and his team in Uppsala, and with Res Co-I Street. More broadly, he will contribute expertise in plant-soil interactions, microbial community ecology and decomposition processes, with an emphasis on the role of mycorrhizal fungi. Jens Subke (Co-I, Stirling) will devote 2.8 hrs per week to the project, contributing to the field campaigns in Sweden (WPs 1 & 2), and taking the lead on the development of WP3 (growing B. pubescens trees under 13C-depleted atmosphere in controlled conditions to generate plant material for hyphal, root & leaf litter priming incubations). He will be strongly involved in the analysis of plant tissue, soil microbial C and N stocks, and provide specific expertise on the stable isotope work. Hartley (Co-I, Exeter) will spend 1.1 hrs per week over the duration of the project, and the bulk of this time will be deployed during two field campaigns in Abisko. Hartley brings expertise in 14CO2 sampling in the field, stable isotope analysis of plant-soil interactions, and the responses of soil respiration to thermal regime and substrate availability. Billett (PP) is an expert in hydrochemistry, and land-freshwater fluxes of carbon (C) in particular, and will lead on the analysis of aqueous C (WPs 1 and 2). He will be involved in the first field campaign and in site selection for WP1, and will work closely with both PP Garnett on the 14C analysis of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and with Subke on the analysis of soils and microbial biomass. Lindahl (PP) is a leading expert on the fungal ecology of boreal and sub-arctic forests, and a driving force behind the application of molecular tools in fungal ecology. He and his team will work closely with Researcher Co-I Street and with Co-I Johnson on the analysis of soil fungal communities. Street will be a guest researcher at his lab to learn and carry out the molecular work and bioinformatics sequence analysis. Lindahl will be involved in all aspects of analysing and publishing the data. Williams (PP, Edinburgh) will host the Res Co-I to introduce rhizosphere priming into decomposition models (i.e. DecoChem v1.0 and DecoBio v1.0) and, more broadly, biogeochemical-biophysical models of boreal / arctic ecosystems (e.g. SPA). He will also liaise with the NCEO and JULES modelling communities in the UK, alongside North American colleagues (e.g. Ed Rastetter, Ecosystems Center; David McGuire, University of Alaska) to deploy results in a pan-Arctic context. |
| Impact | No outputs yet. |
| Start Year | 2016 |
| Description | NE/P013538/1, PI=Hilton, "Carbon export by erosion of the biosphere: The role of earthquake-triggered landslides" |
| Organisation | Durham University |
| Department | Department of Anthropology |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | PP Dr Mark Garnett (NERC Radiocarbon Facility,RCF) brings additional expertise on the analysis of radiocarbon in rivers18,19. Durham University houses all of the state of the art analytical equipment central to the project (EA-IRMS, GC-MS and LC-MS). Specialist coring equipment will be provided by the partner institutions in New Zealand. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Principal Investigator (PI): Dr Robert Hilton, Durham University: PI Hilton is a Reader in Physical Geography. His fundamental research into biogeochemical cycles focuses on how erosion and weathering processes at Earth's surface act to transfer carbon dioxide (CO2) between the atmosphere and long-term, geological storage in sediments. His research seeks to better understand and quantify these carbon transfers, in order to assess how surface processes can impact climate change through the carbon cycle1. Royal Society-funded research has provided the first measurements which demonstrate increased carbon export by a mountain river following a large earthquake2, using samples collected before and after the Mw7.9 2008 Wenchuan earthquake. NERC-funded research (New Investigator NE/I001719/1, RCF#1203.1006, #1228.0407, #1516.0910) has developed and applied a novel combination of radiocarbon, stable isotopes and elemental geochemistry to quantify the source, flux and fate of organic carbon in river systems around the world1,3-5, revealing feedbacks between the carbon cycle and climate at tropical3 and high latitudes4. He holds an ERC Starting Grant (2016 - 21) aiming to understand oxidative weathering of sedimentary organic matter, and quantify the associated CO2 emissions. His track record in combining isotope geochemistry with a geomorphic source-to-sink approach (landslide maps3, river sampling1-6, sediment cores4,6) provides the expertise to lead this proposal. Co-Investigator (Co-I): Dr Erin McClymont, Durham University: Co-I McClymont is a Reader in Physical Geography. She has extensive experience in the development and application of organic geochemistry (biomarker) techniques to understand contemporary and past climatic change, and to unravel the pathways of organic matter from source to sink. NERC-funded research (NE/I027703/1; NE/E00119X/1) has encompassed paleoclimate and proxy development7-9. Using plant and peat samples, she has also developed the potential for lipids and macromolecules to reconstruct vegetation changes and microbial activity7,8 and exploited these signals to understand past environmental change, including in lake sequences9. She won the 2013 Philip Leverhulme Prize in recognition of her international standing and exceptional future potential. Co-I: Prof. Alex Densmore, Durham University: Co-I Densmore is a Professor in the Institute of Hazard, Risk, and Resilience (IHRR) and Department of Geography. He has more than 15 years' experience on the importance of landslides and mass movements in sediment routing systems, active tectonics and sediment dynamics and quantitative modelling of landscape evolution10-12. NERC-funded research (NE/G002665/1) provided a detailed assessment of the surface rupture and landsliding associated with the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake, which has led to a detailed assessment of the large-scale patterns of erosion by earthquake-triggered landslides11,12 and impact of landslides on rivers2. He is Co-I on the 'Earthquakes without Frontiers' project (2012-17) under the NERC-ESRC Increasing Resilience to Natural Hazards programme, in which he is leading research on assessment of earthquake-triggered landslide hazard across the India-Asia collision, and PI of a NERC-NSF China project (2016-19) on community resilience to earthquakes and landslides. In 2011, Densmore was awarded the Bigsby Medal by the Geological Society. Visiting Researcher (VR): Dr Jamie Howarth, Institute of Geological & Nuclear Sciences (GNS), New Zealand: VR Howarth is an Earthquake Geologist and sedimentologist at GNS who focuses on palaeoseismic reconstruction of large earthquake frequency and magnitude using Case detailed assessment of lake deposits. Howarth previously held (2012-14) a prestigious 'Rutherford Foundation' Postdoctoral Fellowship, providing new insight on the longevity of hazards associated with earthquake-triggered landslides. Using lakes receiving sediment from the Southern Alps, New Zealand, he showed that rivers have elevated sediment yields for 50 years following earthquakes and associated landsliding13-15. The identification of these post-seismic phases sets the grounding for the novel research outlined here. Howarth has expertise in the development of lake deposit chronology and brings access to complete records of post-earthquake sediment dynamics. Our proposal represents significant added value by using these unique records to assess carbon transfer following earthquakes. Project Partner (PP) Prof. Niels Hovius (GFZ Potsdam) was awarded the 2016 Bagnold Medal by the EGU and has 20 years' experience of quantifying erosion processes and fluxes in mountain belts16 and links to the carbon cycle3. His collaborative involvement brings significant added value (expertise and landslide datasets17) as PI on GFZ-funded research to examine the impact of the 2015 Gorkha earthquake sequence, Nepal, on sediment and geochemical fluxes. PP Prof. Sean Fitzsimons (Otago University, NZ) brings a wealth of additional expertise in the collection and interpretation of lake sediment archives13,14. |
| Impact | no outputs yet |
| Start Year | 2017 |
| Description | Interview for National News: BBC |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
| Results and Impact | A piece with BBC Scotland science correspondent discussing NRCF work and SUERC's new PIMS technology.This interview (7.8M hits online) was aired in a radio feature on BBC Scotland, included in a news piece in hourly radio bulletins on the national BBC channel, and on TV on BBC Scotland's Reporting Scotland programme |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
| Description | Radiocarbon Short Course joint with Oxford NRCF node |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Professional Practitioners |
| Results and Impact | Radiocarbon Short Course joint with Oxford NRCF node |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
| Description | Radiocarbon Short Course, University of Oxford. |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Professional Practitioners |
| Results and Impact | The Dept. of Continuing Education, University of Oxford runs an annual (originally bi-annual) course on radiocarbon dating which is primarily aimed at postgraduate/postdoctoral researchers with a professional interest in radiocarbon dating. The course is also open to members of the public. All aspects of radiocarbon dating and Bayesian Analysis are covered on the course. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2009,2011,2013,2015,2016 |
| URL | https://www.conted.ox.ac.uk/courses/short-course-in-radiocarbon-dating-and-bayesian-chronological-an... |
| Description | [Philippa Ascough] - Graduate School of Geosciences Research Conference, Cologne University, Germany. |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
| Results and Impact | Keynote presentation, 'The application of radiocarbon and stable isotopes to understand Holocene human-environmental interactions' |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2016 |
| Description | [Philippa Ascough] - Invited lecture |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Local |
| Primary Audience | Undergraduate students |
| Results and Impact | Invited guest lecture: School of Geographical and Earth Sciences, University of Glasgow, |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2016 |