Development of rationally designed live-attenuated lumpy skin disease vaccines
Lead Research Organisation:
The Pirbright Institute
Department Name: Large DNA Viruses
Abstract
The poxvirus genus Capripoxvirus (CPPV) contains three viral species which each cause high consequence, transboundary disease in ruminants. Research into CPPVs is very timely as the three species are spreading from their traditional geographic ranges into new regions. In particular LSDV has spread since 2011 throughout Eastern Mediterranean and Western Asian countries into Turkey (2013) and in August 2015 entered Europe (Greece) for the first time. It is now present throughout the Balkans, Caucasus and south-eastern Russia and threatens other European and Asian countries. Despite their importance there has been little progress in the last 30 years in improving CPPV vaccines.
The newest types of poxvirus vaccines currently being developed in human medicine, such as NYVAC, are genetically engineered. In brief, comparative analyses of viral genomes are used to identify specific target regions of DNA for manipulation in order to produce a safe and effective "live" vaccine. In contrast all currently available CPPV vaccines are randomly mutated and some contain a mix of viruses of variable genotypes and virulence. There have been reports from the field of poor efficacy and safety of these randomly mutated vaccines, indicating the need for better CPPV vaccines. This project will follow the approach used in human medicine to develop safer and more reliable genetically engineered CPPV vaccines.
Full genome sequencing of wildtype and attenuated strains of CPPV by Pirbright researchers and others has enabled bioinformatic analysis of these strains to identify CPPV genes which associate with virulence. We have additionally identified orthologues of known virulence factors of other poxvirus genera and combined the datasets to single out four putative virulence factors of CPPV, genes most likely to encode proteins which contribute to CPPV virulence. Deletion of these genes is likely to result in attenuated CPPV strains.
The initial work (objective 1) will develop CRISPR/Cas9 technology to overcome difficulties in manipulating the CPPV genome. Following on from this, the four putative CPPV virulence factors will be mutated in a wildtype strain of LSDV. The function of the virulence factors will be assessed in isolation (objective 3) and in the context of a viral infection (objective 4). The data will then be assessed. Each mutant strain that (i) replicates to normal or near normal levels in cell culture, and (ii) is supported by evidence of a function consistent with a role as a virulence factor from the in vitro studies in objectives 3 and 4, will be taken forward into animal trials to experimentally measure the influence of the protein on viral virulence (objective 5). Cattle will be infected with a mutant, wildtype or repaired LSDV strain and physiological, behavioural, virological and immunological measurements taken over the following 28 days to assess the severity of the resultant disease. In the final study of the project (objective 6) the data from objectives 3, 4 and 5 will be used to design two mutated LSDV strains which will be assessed as live-attenuated vaccines in a challenge model of LSD. The hypothesis is that the targeted mutation/s will substantially reduce the ability of the virus to cause disease, while retaining strong poxviral immunogenicity.
The main outputs of this project will be (a) identification of virulence factors encoded by LSDV, (b) an improved method for genetically manipulating CPPVs, and (c) rationally designed, genetically engineered vaccines to prevent LSD.
The newest types of poxvirus vaccines currently being developed in human medicine, such as NYVAC, are genetically engineered. In brief, comparative analyses of viral genomes are used to identify specific target regions of DNA for manipulation in order to produce a safe and effective "live" vaccine. In contrast all currently available CPPV vaccines are randomly mutated and some contain a mix of viruses of variable genotypes and virulence. There have been reports from the field of poor efficacy and safety of these randomly mutated vaccines, indicating the need for better CPPV vaccines. This project will follow the approach used in human medicine to develop safer and more reliable genetically engineered CPPV vaccines.
Full genome sequencing of wildtype and attenuated strains of CPPV by Pirbright researchers and others has enabled bioinformatic analysis of these strains to identify CPPV genes which associate with virulence. We have additionally identified orthologues of known virulence factors of other poxvirus genera and combined the datasets to single out four putative virulence factors of CPPV, genes most likely to encode proteins which contribute to CPPV virulence. Deletion of these genes is likely to result in attenuated CPPV strains.
The initial work (objective 1) will develop CRISPR/Cas9 technology to overcome difficulties in manipulating the CPPV genome. Following on from this, the four putative CPPV virulence factors will be mutated in a wildtype strain of LSDV. The function of the virulence factors will be assessed in isolation (objective 3) and in the context of a viral infection (objective 4). The data will then be assessed. Each mutant strain that (i) replicates to normal or near normal levels in cell culture, and (ii) is supported by evidence of a function consistent with a role as a virulence factor from the in vitro studies in objectives 3 and 4, will be taken forward into animal trials to experimentally measure the influence of the protein on viral virulence (objective 5). Cattle will be infected with a mutant, wildtype or repaired LSDV strain and physiological, behavioural, virological and immunological measurements taken over the following 28 days to assess the severity of the resultant disease. In the final study of the project (objective 6) the data from objectives 3, 4 and 5 will be used to design two mutated LSDV strains which will be assessed as live-attenuated vaccines in a challenge model of LSD. The hypothesis is that the targeted mutation/s will substantially reduce the ability of the virus to cause disease, while retaining strong poxviral immunogenicity.
The main outputs of this project will be (a) identification of virulence factors encoded by LSDV, (b) an improved method for genetically manipulating CPPVs, and (c) rationally designed, genetically engineered vaccines to prevent LSD.
Technical Summary
The three viral species in the capripoxvirus (CPPV) genus are Sheeppox virus (SPPV), Goatpox virus (GTPV) and Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV). They cause severe disease in ruminants particularly in low and middle income countries.
Live-attenuated vaccines which target CPPV disease have been available for decades however they have not been modernised in parallel with other poxvirus-based vaccines and remain poorly characterised with variable efficacy. The recent spread of lumpy skin disease (LSD) through the Middle East and into Europe has highlighted the problems with the currently available CPPV vaccines, for example the RM65 vaccine was ineffective at controlling LSD in Israel in 2012. This project aims to develop improved live-attenuated CPPV vaccines.
The programme of work will target four putative CPPV virulence factors identified by genomic analysis of wildtype and attenuated strains of CPPV. The functions of these four CPPV genes can be predicted by extrapolation from previous studies carried out into orthologues from other poxvirus genera. This prior information will be used to support our studies into their function. The putative LSDV virulence proteins will be studied in isolation using appropriate recombinant systems, and in the context of a viral infection in cell culture by characterising mutagenised strains of LSDV lacking each of the genes. If evidence of a function as a virulence factor is gained from these in vitro studies, the virulence of the mutated LSDV strains will be tested empirically using an experimental bovine model of LSD. In the final objective of the programme of work, mutated LSDV strains which show evidence of severe attenuation coupled with robust immunogenicity will be tested for suitability as vaccines in a bovine LSD challenge model.
Live-attenuated vaccines which target CPPV disease have been available for decades however they have not been modernised in parallel with other poxvirus-based vaccines and remain poorly characterised with variable efficacy. The recent spread of lumpy skin disease (LSD) through the Middle East and into Europe has highlighted the problems with the currently available CPPV vaccines, for example the RM65 vaccine was ineffective at controlling LSD in Israel in 2012. This project aims to develop improved live-attenuated CPPV vaccines.
The programme of work will target four putative CPPV virulence factors identified by genomic analysis of wildtype and attenuated strains of CPPV. The functions of these four CPPV genes can be predicted by extrapolation from previous studies carried out into orthologues from other poxvirus genera. This prior information will be used to support our studies into their function. The putative LSDV virulence proteins will be studied in isolation using appropriate recombinant systems, and in the context of a viral infection in cell culture by characterising mutagenised strains of LSDV lacking each of the genes. If evidence of a function as a virulence factor is gained from these in vitro studies, the virulence of the mutated LSDV strains will be tested empirically using an experimental bovine model of LSD. In the final objective of the programme of work, mutated LSDV strains which show evidence of severe attenuation coupled with robust immunogenicity will be tested for suitability as vaccines in a bovine LSD challenge model.
Planned Impact
What is the benefit of this research?
The main benefit of this research is better control of LSD through the use of a safe and effective, rationally designed LSD vaccine.
Who will benefit and how?
For each beneficiary the timescale of the impact has been estimated as immediate (I, during the time frame of the project), medium term (M, 1-5 years after the project has been completed) or long term (L, >5 years after the project has been completed).
1. Countries in Europe and Asia. Vaccination is a crucial component of LSD control programmes, as evidenced in the current Euroasian epidemic. When LSD entered Europe in Greece in 2015 and Bulgaria in 2016 initial stamping out and quarantine measures did not stop the spread of the virus. Both countries enacted widespread emergency vaccination campaigns to slow the spread of the virus and reduce disease incidence. Countries in southwest Europe and the Balkans are now vaccinating millions of cattle annually and likely to do so for at least the next 4-5 years. If the virus spreads further into Europe even wider vaccination programmes will be required, as recognised by the European Commission who have recently placed a tender for 2 340 000 LSD vaccine doses over the next four years to stock their LSD vaccine bank (https://etendering.ted.europa.eu/cft/cft-documents.html?cftId=2209). The improved vaccine produced in this project will therefore benefit all countries in Europe and Asia which have or are threatened with LSD. I, M, L.
2. Countries in Africa with endemic LSD. Vaccination against LSD is even more important in resource-poor countries such as many parts of Africa. Movement controls and slaughter campaigns are not able to be implemented in these areas therefore LSD control depends almost entirely on vaccination. A safe and effective vaccine will reduce LSD, and thereby increase the efficiency and sustainability of animal production and ensure safe and nutritious diets leading to improved global food security. I, M, L.
3. Rural communities with sheeppox and goatpox. This project will also promote control and eradication of sheeppox and goatpox. This will specifically benefit the poorest subsistence farmers who cannot afford cattle, and women who are often given responsibility for raising small ruminants. Sheep and goat farming in low and middle income countries (LMICs) occurs mostly in smallholdings with the animals providing high quality protein food source (meat and milk), wool, fibre and skins for clothing, a means of accumulating capital and a ready source of emergency funds as well as socio-cultural wealth. Controlling and preventing sheeppox and goatpox will improve the productivity and stability of sheep / goat farming in LMICs and thereby reduce rural poverty through raising farm income, expanding the labour market, and reducing food prices. M and L.
4. Non-governmental agencies. CPPV diseases are priorities for charities working in low and middle income countries such as GalvMed and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. They will likely seek to implement the outputs from this research. I and M.
5. Vaccine manufacturers. This project will develop a new vaccine and new tools to construct genetically modified poxvirus vaccines which will be of benefit to poxvirus vaccine manufacturers. I and M.
6. UK government, farmers and rural communities. LSDV is an emerging threat to the UK as it spreads through southeast Europe. The risk of LSDV reaching the UK will be reduced as a result of this research, therefore avoiding the loss of lucrative UK trade markets. The main trade-related economic consequence of a LSDV outbreak in the UK is loss of semen and embryo markets (there is very little live cattle trade from the UK). In addition the outcomes from this work will strengthen the UK CPPV research base, and provide broader capabilities and new tools for use in a future LSDV outbreak in the UK. I, M and L.
The main benefit of this research is better control of LSD through the use of a safe and effective, rationally designed LSD vaccine.
Who will benefit and how?
For each beneficiary the timescale of the impact has been estimated as immediate (I, during the time frame of the project), medium term (M, 1-5 years after the project has been completed) or long term (L, >5 years after the project has been completed).
1. Countries in Europe and Asia. Vaccination is a crucial component of LSD control programmes, as evidenced in the current Euroasian epidemic. When LSD entered Europe in Greece in 2015 and Bulgaria in 2016 initial stamping out and quarantine measures did not stop the spread of the virus. Both countries enacted widespread emergency vaccination campaigns to slow the spread of the virus and reduce disease incidence. Countries in southwest Europe and the Balkans are now vaccinating millions of cattle annually and likely to do so for at least the next 4-5 years. If the virus spreads further into Europe even wider vaccination programmes will be required, as recognised by the European Commission who have recently placed a tender for 2 340 000 LSD vaccine doses over the next four years to stock their LSD vaccine bank (https://etendering.ted.europa.eu/cft/cft-documents.html?cftId=2209). The improved vaccine produced in this project will therefore benefit all countries in Europe and Asia which have or are threatened with LSD. I, M, L.
2. Countries in Africa with endemic LSD. Vaccination against LSD is even more important in resource-poor countries such as many parts of Africa. Movement controls and slaughter campaigns are not able to be implemented in these areas therefore LSD control depends almost entirely on vaccination. A safe and effective vaccine will reduce LSD, and thereby increase the efficiency and sustainability of animal production and ensure safe and nutritious diets leading to improved global food security. I, M, L.
3. Rural communities with sheeppox and goatpox. This project will also promote control and eradication of sheeppox and goatpox. This will specifically benefit the poorest subsistence farmers who cannot afford cattle, and women who are often given responsibility for raising small ruminants. Sheep and goat farming in low and middle income countries (LMICs) occurs mostly in smallholdings with the animals providing high quality protein food source (meat and milk), wool, fibre and skins for clothing, a means of accumulating capital and a ready source of emergency funds as well as socio-cultural wealth. Controlling and preventing sheeppox and goatpox will improve the productivity and stability of sheep / goat farming in LMICs and thereby reduce rural poverty through raising farm income, expanding the labour market, and reducing food prices. M and L.
4. Non-governmental agencies. CPPV diseases are priorities for charities working in low and middle income countries such as GalvMed and the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. They will likely seek to implement the outputs from this research. I and M.
5. Vaccine manufacturers. This project will develop a new vaccine and new tools to construct genetically modified poxvirus vaccines which will be of benefit to poxvirus vaccine manufacturers. I and M.
6. UK government, farmers and rural communities. LSDV is an emerging threat to the UK as it spreads through southeast Europe. The risk of LSDV reaching the UK will be reduced as a result of this research, therefore avoiding the loss of lucrative UK trade markets. The main trade-related economic consequence of a LSDV outbreak in the UK is loss of semen and embryo markets (there is very little live cattle trade from the UK). In addition the outcomes from this work will strengthen the UK CPPV research base, and provide broader capabilities and new tools for use in a future LSDV outbreak in the UK. I, M and L.
Organisations
- The Pirbright Institute (Lead Research Organisation)
- UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH (Collaboration)
- Royal Veterinary College (RVC) (Collaboration)
- National Veterinary Research Institute, Nigeria (Collaboration)
- J. Craig Venter Institute (Collaboration)
- Bauchi State University (Collaboration)
- State Central Veterinary Laboratory (Collaboration)
Publications
Fay P
(2022)
A field study evaluating the humoral immune response in Mongolian sheep vaccinated against sheeppox virus.
in Transboundary and emerging diseases
Flannery J
(2022)
A novel strain of lumpy skin disease virus causes clinical disease in cattle in Hong Kong.
in Transboundary and emerging diseases
Limon G
(2020)
Socio-economic impact of Foot-and-Mouth Disease outbreaks and control measures: An analysis of Mongolian outbreaks in 2017.
in Transboundary and emerging diseases
Begovoeva M
(2023)
Factors associated with foot-and-mouth disease seroprevalence in small ruminants and identification of hot-spot areas in northern Nigeria.
in Preventive veterinary medicine
Rawlins ME
(2022)
Financial impact of sheeppox and goatpox and estimated profitability of vaccination for subsistence farmers in selected northern states of Nigeria.
in Preventive veterinary medicine
Adedeji AJ
(2021)
Household and animal factors associated with sheeppox and goatpox sero-prevalence and identification of high-risk areas in selected States of northern Nigeria.
in Preventive veterinary medicine
Fay PC
(2020)
Madin-Darby bovine kidney (MDBK) cells are a suitable cell line for the propagation and study of the bovine poxvirus lumpy skin disease virus.
in Journal of virological methods
Limon G
(2020)
Epidemiological Characteristics and Economic Impact of Lumpy Skin Disease, Sheeppox and Goatpox Among Subsistence Farmers in Northeast Nigeria.
in Frontiers in veterinary science
Description | This award funded work on the virulence factors of lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV). Key findings include: 1. Development of a rapid and accurate method for sequencing the whole genome of LSDV, in collaboration with the sequencing unit of The Pirbright Institute, and bioinformaticians at The Roslin Institute. 2. Generation of a fluoresently tagged strain of LSDV which has been used to optimise diagnostic tests for LSDV and as a molecular tool to investigate, for instance, the mechanism of LSDV cell exit. 3. Development of a novel method of mutagenising the genome of LSDV has been developed, enabling generation of markerless deletions of selected regions of the genome. 4. Identification of risk factors associated with LSD in areas of endemicity in Africa, estimation of the economic impact of LSD, and identification of livestock markets as potential hubs for disease transmission. |
Exploitation Route | The novel methodology could be used by other poxvirus researchers. Information on risk factors associated with LSD suggest potential mechanisms for targeted control. Quantification of the economic impact of LSD, both immediate and long-lasting, on subsistence farmers' livelihoods in North-East Nigeria can be used to informing the design of disease control programmes and for prioritisation of the allocation of limited resources. |
Sectors | Agriculture Food and Drink |
Description | Briefing document for OIE |
Geographic Reach | Multiple continents/international |
Policy Influence Type | Implementation circular/rapid advice/letter to e.g. Ministry of Health |
Description | Contributed to World Organisation for Animal Health FAQs for lumpy skin disease |
Geographic Reach | Multiple continents/international |
Policy Influence Type | Influenced training of practitioners or researchers |
Impact | Better knowledge of lumpy skin disease, which is particularly important given the current LSD epidemic in Asia. |
URL | https://www.woah.org/en/document/faq-on-lumpy-skin-disease-lsd/ |
Description | Expert advice on a Lumpy skin disease vaccine bank for the UK |
Geographic Reach | National |
Policy Influence Type | Membership of a guideline committee |
Description | Guidelines for FMDV control in Mongolia |
Geographic Reach | Asia |
Policy Influence Type | Contribution to a national consultation/review |
Description | BBSRC responsive mode funding |
Amount | £356,484 (GBP) |
Funding ID | BB/T005173/1 |
Organisation | Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) |
Sector | Public |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 01/2020 |
End | 12/2021 |
Description | BBSRC-funded Oxford Doctoral Training Partnership in vivo skills award |
Amount | £15,000 (GBP) |
Organisation | Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) |
Sector | Public |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 05/2020 |
End | 06/2021 |
Description | Evaluating the role of small ruminants in the spread and endemicity of foot-and-mouth disease in Northern Nigeria |
Amount | £10,000 (GBP) |
Organisation | European Commission |
Sector | Public |
Country | European Union (EU) |
Start | 08/2020 |
End | 06/2021 |
Description | Collaboration with Bauchi State Veterinary Services, Nigeria |
Organisation | Bauchi State University |
Country | Nigeria |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | We have provided expertise on sheeppox, goatpox and lumpy skin disease virus diagnosis and epidemiology |
Collaborator Contribution | Our collaborators in Bauchi State have provided virus samples and epidemiological data |
Impact | Preliminary data was used to support successful funding via a BBSRC Impact Accelerator Award, and a Pathways to Impact project in BBSRC project BB/R008833/1 "Development of rationally designed live-attenuated lumpy skin disease vaccines" |
Start Year | 2016 |
Description | Collaboration with State Central Veterinary Laboratory, Mongolia |
Organisation | State Central Veterinary Laboratory |
Country | Mongolia |
Sector | Public |
PI Contribution | We provided tools, techniques and expertise on sheeppox and goatpox |
Collaborator Contribution | Our colleagues provided data and field samples |
Impact | A workshop was held in Pirbright in March 2017, and a return workshop in Ulaanbaatar in July 2017. Preliminary data supported successful grant applications for an Impact Accelerator Award, and a Pathways to Impact project in BB/R008833/1 "Development of rationally designed live-attenuated lumpy skin disease vaccines". |
Start Year | 2016 |
Description | JCVI and IVAC |
Organisation | J Craig Venter Institute |
Country | United States |
Sector | Charity/Non Profit |
PI Contribution | We are working together with Dr Lauren Oldfield at JCVI to develop a better method for mutagenising lumpy skin disease virus. The Pirbright Institute is providing expertise on LSDV, JCVI is providing expertise on mutagenesis of large DNA virus genomes. |
Collaborator Contribution | We are working together with Dr Lauren Oldfield at JCVI to develop a better method for mutagenising lumpy skin disease virus. The Pirbright Institute is providing expertise on LSDV, JCVI is providing expertise on mutagenesis of large DNA virus genomes. |
Impact | No outputs yet. |
Start Year | 2018 |
Description | NVRI Vom |
Organisation | National Veterinary Research Institute, Nigeria |
Country | Nigeria |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | The collaboration is investigating the epidemiology of capripoxvirus disease in Nigeria |
Collaborator Contribution | A serosurveillance study has been carried out and is currently being analysed |
Impact | None yet |
Start Year | 2019 |
Description | RVC and IVAC |
Organisation | Royal Veterinary College (RVC) |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | The RVC is providing epidemiology expertise to the project. |
Collaborator Contribution | The RVC is providing epidemiology expertise to the project. |
Impact | None yet |
Start Year | 2019 |
Description | Roslin and IVAC |
Organisation | University of Edinburgh |
Department | The Roslin Institute |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | The Roslin Institute have joined the project to provide bioinformatic expertise |
Collaborator Contribution | The Roslin Institute have joined the project to provide bioinformatic expertise |
Impact | None yet. |
Start Year | 2019 |
Description | Article on Pirbright website |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Website article to highlight the research published on the socioeconomic impact of foot and mouth disease in Mongolia. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2020 |
URL | https://www.pirbright.ac.uk/news/2020/05/pirbright-calculates-impact-foot-and-mouth-disease-control-... |
Description | Cheltenham Science Festival 2018 |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Attended the Cheltenham Science Festival and presented "Pandemic Live" an interactive debate on the spread of viruses in livestock. The audience were guided through the decision making processes that accompany an outbreak of an exotic livestock disease outbreak. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
Description | Epizone annual meeting 2022 IL |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
Results and Impact | Poster: Lumpy skin disease virus encodes an extracellular inhibitor of type I IFN signalling |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
Description | Innovate Guildford |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Increased interest in science and research |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2019 |
Description | Pirbright Dragon Fair |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | Local |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Stimulating increased interest in science and research |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2019 |
Description | Socioeconomic impact of FMD in Mongolia workshops |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Professional Practitioners |
Results and Impact | In March 2019 two workshops were held in Mongolia to present and discuss the results of a project investigating the socio-economic impact of FMD outbreaks and control measures in Mongolia. The project had been carried out as a collaboration between The Pirbright Institute and the State Central Veterinary Laboratory of Mongolia. The first workshop was held in a rural location (Khenti province) and focused on knowledge exchange with herders and private vets. Nine private vets and 17 herders affected by FMD during the 2017 epidemic attended the workshop, representing 8 provinces. The second workshop was held in the capital Ulaanbaatar and focused on knowledge exchange with government ministries and veterinarians. During the workshop results from the socio-economic study and a summary of outputs from the herders' workshop were presented and discussed. In total 20 people attended this workshop including representatives from the State Central Veterinary Laboratory (SCVL), National Emergency Management (NEMA) and General Agency Veterinary Service (GAVS), as well as government vets from provinces affected during the last FMD outbreak and representatives from FAO in Mongolia. Presentations for both workshops were translated in Mongolian ahead of the workshops, and a translator was present to facilitate the discussions. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2019 |