Cannabis Africana: Drugs and Development in Africa
Lead Research Organisation:
University of Bristol
Department Name: Sch for Policy Studies
Abstract
Cannabis is ubiquitous in sub-Saharan Africa, with a long history interwoven with numerous groups' cultural practices, and increasingly a valuable economic commodity. Despite this, little is known of these roles, the predominant source of knowledge about the substance and its various uses being drawn from police and state sources. As a result, there is a lack of understanding about how cannabis is used and perceived - beyond its status as an 'illegal drug' - and what roles it plays in the lives of people in sub-Saharan Africa. The proposed research project will develop a deeper, more nuanced understanding of cannabis in Africa, focusing not only on its 'traditional' uses, but on its contemporary growth as an economic cash crop and source of livelihoods, in a global context where drug policy is in flux. To do this, the project focuses attention on four interrelated areas, all of which draw on newly gathered empirical data in 3 chosen sites: South-Western Nigeria, Western Kenya; South Africa's Eastern Cape.
First, an historical account serves as the foundation of the project, exploring the roles that cannabis has played in Africa's history, both in terms of governance and in the daily livelihoods of many of the continent's people. Drawing on fresh archival research and oral histories, the project aims to highlight the long history that cannabis has had and the lessons that can be drawn for current debates and perceptions of the substance. These debates and perceptions, it should be noted, are shifting in many countries in Africa today, with the submission of this proposal coming at a time at which South Africa is officially considering the legal status of cannabis in the courts.
Following on from this historical point of departure, the second focus of the proposed project aims to understand the contemporary socioeconomic roles of cannabis, its uses, the practices associated with it, and indeed, the meaning it holds for farmers, traders and consumers. This area of the project will explicitly explore cannabis' links to rural and urban livelihoods and so-called 'development' by drawing on evidence gathered through interviews and small scale surveys, which will be collected in 3 case study sites across the continent. The study will, for instance, gather the unheard voices of cannabis farmers who live in the remote Transkei area of South Africa or Nigeria's Cocoa Belt.
The third area that our research will focus on are the various cultures of consumption that exist around the substance. While the existing literature has hinted at these, they remain largely unexplored despite varying greatly between, for instance, the urban and rural contexts of the continent. As such, this part not only draws on the data of the above two, but also explores a wider corpus of cultural practices, discourses and products, such as music and fiction, in order to shed light on the meanings that cannabis has taken on, aside from being an 'illegal drug' over time in the 3 study sites.
Finally, the fourth area highlights the role of drug policy, focusing on the impact that regulatory environments have on the production, distribution and use of cannabis in the case-study sites. It will reveal how regulation and prohibition has impacted on the lives of people and their ability to enact their economic and cultural practices. The project provides a deeper understanding of the relationship between cannabis and policy towards it, probing the history of cannabis policy, with the aim of understanding and developing more effective and more just governance strategies today.
With its focus on cannabis and its illicit economies and cultures of consumption, the project will illuminate a substance of critical importance for the continent, filling a vast lacuna in our knowledge of drugs in Africa, and will tackle a key case-study of drugs and development, one made all the more important given the liberalisation of cannabis policies elsewhere in the world.
First, an historical account serves as the foundation of the project, exploring the roles that cannabis has played in Africa's history, both in terms of governance and in the daily livelihoods of many of the continent's people. Drawing on fresh archival research and oral histories, the project aims to highlight the long history that cannabis has had and the lessons that can be drawn for current debates and perceptions of the substance. These debates and perceptions, it should be noted, are shifting in many countries in Africa today, with the submission of this proposal coming at a time at which South Africa is officially considering the legal status of cannabis in the courts.
Following on from this historical point of departure, the second focus of the proposed project aims to understand the contemporary socioeconomic roles of cannabis, its uses, the practices associated with it, and indeed, the meaning it holds for farmers, traders and consumers. This area of the project will explicitly explore cannabis' links to rural and urban livelihoods and so-called 'development' by drawing on evidence gathered through interviews and small scale surveys, which will be collected in 3 case study sites across the continent. The study will, for instance, gather the unheard voices of cannabis farmers who live in the remote Transkei area of South Africa or Nigeria's Cocoa Belt.
The third area that our research will focus on are the various cultures of consumption that exist around the substance. While the existing literature has hinted at these, they remain largely unexplored despite varying greatly between, for instance, the urban and rural contexts of the continent. As such, this part not only draws on the data of the above two, but also explores a wider corpus of cultural practices, discourses and products, such as music and fiction, in order to shed light on the meanings that cannabis has taken on, aside from being an 'illegal drug' over time in the 3 study sites.
Finally, the fourth area highlights the role of drug policy, focusing on the impact that regulatory environments have on the production, distribution and use of cannabis in the case-study sites. It will reveal how regulation and prohibition has impacted on the lives of people and their ability to enact their economic and cultural practices. The project provides a deeper understanding of the relationship between cannabis and policy towards it, probing the history of cannabis policy, with the aim of understanding and developing more effective and more just governance strategies today.
With its focus on cannabis and its illicit economies and cultures of consumption, the project will illuminate a substance of critical importance for the continent, filling a vast lacuna in our knowledge of drugs in Africa, and will tackle a key case-study of drugs and development, one made all the more important given the liberalisation of cannabis policies elsewhere in the world.
Planned Impact
Our research has a wide range of beneficiaries and a broad audience, especially as drug policy is much debated at present and various governments are now trialing alternative approaches. Given the interest in the nexus of drugs and development in Africa, a project exploring this link will offer a foundation for a better understanding of the drugs-development nexus as well as for devising better policy towards cannabis and other drugs in Africa and beyond.
(1) The project will be of immense interest to drug policy makers. We have planned in close links with relevant agencies from across Africa and particularly in the three case study countries, such as Nigeria's National Drug Law Enforcement Agency, South African Police, UK Home Office and National Crime Agency. Regional and international organisations with a strong policy interest in drugs in Africa will also be direct beneficiaries of our project, such as the West African Commission on Drugs (WACD) and the African Union's commissioners' dealing with crime and social policy, as well as the UNODC, Interpol and the WHO.
(2) Our project is of relevance to legal professionals, particularly in South Africa where the legality of cannabis consumption is currently debated at court and this has begun to heighten debate and concern in the country. Our research will be ideally poised to play a leading role in these legal and public debates, as one of the project members (CoI-Howell) has acted as an expert witness in this seminal court case and has been asked to be involved in the subsequent discussions on reform of laws and policies.
(3) Activists, workers in the charity and NGO sectors involved in drug policy, development and harm reduction, as well as health practitioners working with drug users, will benefit from our research. The NGO Centre for Research and Information on Substance Abuse (CRISA) is a key actor in this field of NGOs and activists in Africa and closely linked into this project. The Open Society Foundation's Drug Policy Programme, the International Drug Policy Consortium and the Global Drug Policy Observatory will also be key beneficiaries.
(4) There is also a significant interest in drug policy and reform among the wider public, and our project on the most commonly used illicit drug within Africa promises to further spark increased debate on policy and the role of drugs in Africa. The project will seek the widest platforms for engaging this public through working with media and disseminating its findings online and through key social media.
Our project has a three-pronged strategy designed to ensure maximum engagement with the widest possible number of beneficiaries. First, the project will be guided by an advisory board constituted not just by academics, but also by policy makers and activists, for instance by Isidore Obot, head of the NGO CRISA and one of Africa's foremost drug policy experts working closely with key organisations, such as UNODC and the African Union.
Second, three workshops will be held over the course of the project, which will recruit widely from among our key audiences and beneficiaries, such as a methodology workshop on illicit markets at UCT in the first phase of the project, a second drug policy workshop as part of the prestigious CRISA conference on drugs in Africa, as well as our final Bristol conference on cannabis and drug policy.
Third, we will disseminate the research findings through four policy papers, which will be designed with the direct input of key beneficiaries and tailored to their policy needs. They will be made available at the CRISA workshop and Bristol conference, on our project website and widely disseminated through social media and drugs mailing lists. In addition to the methods mentioned above, we will offer opportunities for stakeholders to directly engage with our project through our project team's presence in Cape Town - one of Africa's key media and civil society hubs.
(1) The project will be of immense interest to drug policy makers. We have planned in close links with relevant agencies from across Africa and particularly in the three case study countries, such as Nigeria's National Drug Law Enforcement Agency, South African Police, UK Home Office and National Crime Agency. Regional and international organisations with a strong policy interest in drugs in Africa will also be direct beneficiaries of our project, such as the West African Commission on Drugs (WACD) and the African Union's commissioners' dealing with crime and social policy, as well as the UNODC, Interpol and the WHO.
(2) Our project is of relevance to legal professionals, particularly in South Africa where the legality of cannabis consumption is currently debated at court and this has begun to heighten debate and concern in the country. Our research will be ideally poised to play a leading role in these legal and public debates, as one of the project members (CoI-Howell) has acted as an expert witness in this seminal court case and has been asked to be involved in the subsequent discussions on reform of laws and policies.
(3) Activists, workers in the charity and NGO sectors involved in drug policy, development and harm reduction, as well as health practitioners working with drug users, will benefit from our research. The NGO Centre for Research and Information on Substance Abuse (CRISA) is a key actor in this field of NGOs and activists in Africa and closely linked into this project. The Open Society Foundation's Drug Policy Programme, the International Drug Policy Consortium and the Global Drug Policy Observatory will also be key beneficiaries.
(4) There is also a significant interest in drug policy and reform among the wider public, and our project on the most commonly used illicit drug within Africa promises to further spark increased debate on policy and the role of drugs in Africa. The project will seek the widest platforms for engaging this public through working with media and disseminating its findings online and through key social media.
Our project has a three-pronged strategy designed to ensure maximum engagement with the widest possible number of beneficiaries. First, the project will be guided by an advisory board constituted not just by academics, but also by policy makers and activists, for instance by Isidore Obot, head of the NGO CRISA and one of Africa's foremost drug policy experts working closely with key organisations, such as UNODC and the African Union.
Second, three workshops will be held over the course of the project, which will recruit widely from among our key audiences and beneficiaries, such as a methodology workshop on illicit markets at UCT in the first phase of the project, a second drug policy workshop as part of the prestigious CRISA conference on drugs in Africa, as well as our final Bristol conference on cannabis and drug policy.
Third, we will disseminate the research findings through four policy papers, which will be designed with the direct input of key beneficiaries and tailored to their policy needs. They will be made available at the CRISA workshop and Bristol conference, on our project website and widely disseminated through social media and drugs mailing lists. In addition to the methods mentioned above, we will offer opportunities for stakeholders to directly engage with our project through our project team's presence in Cape Town - one of Africa's key media and civil society hubs.
Organisations
- University of Bristol (Lead Research Organisation)
- Arts and Humanities Research Council (Co-funder)
- Global Initiative (Collaboration)
- University of Cape Town (Collaboration)
- African Studies Association of the UK (Collaboration)
- Centre for Research and Information on Substance Abuse (Collaboration)
- KING'S COLLEGE LONDON (Collaboration)
- School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London) (Collaboration)
Publications
Carrier N
(2020)
Research Handbook on International Drug Policy
Carrier N
(2021)
Cannabis: Global Histories
Cohen C
(2021)
Introduction au thème. La prohibition par le bas : négociations morales et contestations locales
in Politique africaine
Klantschnig G
(2021)
Cannabis: Global Histories
Description | Advice on methodology of Global Drug Policy Index |
Geographic Reach | Multiple continents/international |
Policy Influence Type | Participation in a guidance/advisory committee |
URL | https://globaldrugpolicyindex.net/ |
Description | Expert Review of the Global Organized Crime Index - African Drug Markets |
Geographic Reach | Multiple continents/international |
Policy Influence Type | Participation in a guidance/advisory committee |
URL | https://ocindex.net/ |
Description | 24HR Conference on Organised Crime |
Organisation | Global Initiative |
Country | Switzerland |
Sector | Public |
PI Contribution | We presented a paper titled Reassessing drug markets and policies across African countries The paper mapped and discussed the African drug market dynamics over the past 10 years. |
Collaborator Contribution | They provided a platform for discussion of our research findings. They organised a panel and facilitated the discussions with other participants and the audience. |
Impact | A journal special issue is under production processes (review). We have an article from which the presentation was based, appearing in that Special Issue. |
Start Year | 2022 |
Description | Conference Panel: Cannabis and development in Africa: Policy reforms and experiences |
Organisation | Centre for Research and Information on Substance Abuse |
Country | Nigeria |
Sector | Charity/Non Profit |
PI Contribution | We hosted a panel focusing on cannabis policy reforms and experiences in Africa |
Collaborator Contribution | They provided a space for discussion with activists, policy makers and academics. |
Impact | We delivered our preliminary research findings We created space for discussion of contemporary experiences in the field of cannabis in Africa We grew our network of people we engage with as our project progresses. |
Start Year | 2022 |
Description | Conference Panel: From Risk to Opportunity: Cannabis and Development in Africa |
Organisation | African Studies Association of the UK |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Learned Society |
PI Contribution | We hosted a conference panel titled 'From risk to opportunity: Cannabis and development in Africa. It brought together presenters doing work on cannabis in the UK and those focusing on African countries like South Africa, Zimbabwe, Kenya and Nigeria. The panel was chosen for online streaming by the organisers, due to the contemporary nature and relevance of the topic. |
Collaborator Contribution | ASAUK provided a platform for us to present and discuss our work with colleagues doing related work. It connected us to the audience via livestreaming of the panel discussions. |
Impact | Unpublished conference papers were produced. Networking with scholars doing related work was an important outcome. Getting feedback on our work, which we used to improve the project going forward. |
Start Year | 2022 |
Description | Conference Panel: Psychoactive Agents: Drugs, morality and responsibility |
Organisation | King's College London |
Department | Department of Population Health Sciences |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | 1. Convened the conference panel: 'Psychoactive Agents: Drugs, morality and responsibility' |
Collaborator Contribution | 1. Co-convened the conference pane: Panel: Psychoactive Agents: Drugs, morality and responsibility |
Impact | Conference papers where presented in our panel. |
Start Year | 2021 |
Description | Drugs and (dis)order workshops |
Organisation | School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London) |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | We attended two planning workshops aimed at two objectives. 1. The workshops are part of the collaborations drawing from different research projects on drugs in Africa, Latin America and Asia. We are working towards publication of a special issue in the Journal of Peasant Studies. Our paper provide a focus on cannabis and Africa. 2. The workshops were also aimed at planning a panel presentation at the Drugs and (dis)order conference which took place from 14 - 16 February 2022 - hosted by SOAS. |
Collaborator Contribution | 1. The SOAS team coordinated the workshops where we discussed theoretical and empirical dynamics coming out of our research projects and case studies. 2. SOAS organised a conference where we presented initial research findings from our project. |
Impact | 1. A conference on drugs in Latin America, Africa and Asia was organised in which we were active participants in planning the panel on drugs and presented a paper. 2. We presented a paper titled 'Cannabis, agrarian change and crisis: contested livelihoods in southern Africa'. We are developing the paper into an article for the Special Issue in the Journal of Peasant Studies. This partnership is multi-disciplinary - with researchers coming from Sociology, African Studies, Policy Studies, etc. |
Start Year | 2021 |
Description | Workshops with the Centre for African Studies, University of Cape Town |
Organisation | University of Cape Town |
Country | South Africa |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | 1. We participated in two knowledge sharing workshops with the Centre for African Studies, University of Cape Town, where we discussed our research project. |
Collaborator Contribution | 1. Our partners share knowledge on cannabis in the South African context, especially in communities and the history and meanings of cannabis to African indigenous communities. |
Impact | 1. Two workshops were held where our research was discussed, and we exchanged knowledge on cannabis in Africa. 2. The CAS team is going to participate in our panel which we will host at the upcoming African Studies Association of Africa (ASAA) conference to be hosted by the University of Cape Town, South Africa, from the 11th to the 16th of April 2022. 3. Collaborative seminars have also been agreed on during 2022, as well as their participation in our Methods Workshop to be held at the University of Cape Town, South Africa, during 2022. |
Start Year | 2021 |
Description | Cannabis Africana: Drugs and Development Project Launch |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Other audiences |
Results and Impact | The event was organised for the official launch of the Cannabis Africana: Drugs and Development project. The discussions and points of clarity raised helped our preparation for the research fieldwork in Zimbabwe, Kenya, South Africa and Nigeria. A network of colleagues with common research interests was created. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
Description | Cannabis Africana: Drugs and development in Kenya |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
Results and Impact | Neil Carrier and Gordon Omenya presented a paper as part of the Anthropology Research Seminar series at Queen's University Belfast, January 31st 2023. The paper explored livelihood, developmental and policy issues relating to cannabis in Kenya and East Africa in general. It focused in particular on the Kenyan and wider East African dynamics of cannabis production, use and trade. It shared with the audience key early findings of the research project, while placing the contemporary dynamics of cannabis in East Africa within its historical context, as well as showing how the current global context of liberalising cannabis policy has affected perceptions of cannabis in Kenya, and led to cannabis being debated and even praised much more openly than in the past. 20 people attended the seminar and engaged the speakers with great interest. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
URL | https://www.qub.ac.uk/schools/happ/Events/AnthropologyResearchSeminars-1.html |
Description | Cape Town Activists Engagement Workshop |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Third sector organisations |
Results and Impact | The event was an engagement with activists doing work on drug policy reform in South Africa and other regional countries such as Kenya, Zimbabwe, Lesotho and Nigeria. The purpose was to establish working relationship between Cannabis Africana team and activists. The Cannabis Africana team shared their research findings with the activists, who expressed the desire to use such in their activism work. A resolution was taken that closer cooperation be done between our team and the activists going forward, and that our research findings continue to be made accessible to the activists for use in their work. A manual is being created on the state of drugs policies in the four countries covered by our project (Zimbabwe, Kenya, Nigeria and South Africa. This will be written in a language that is easy for activists to access. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
Description | Cape Town Methods Workshop |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Third sector organisations |
Results and Impact | The methods workshop was hosted by our partner, the University of Cape Town. We used it to share with various stakeholders what our project focus is. Primary focus was to discuss methodological and ethical issues in the study of illicit substances The workshop brought together various stakeholders which facilitated sharing of experiences and knowledge exchange around methods and ethics in studying drugs |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
URL | https://cannabisafricana.blogs.bristol.ac.uk/2022/12/01/cannabis-africana-cape-town-methods-workshop... |
Description | Engagement with the West Africa Drug Policy Network (WADPN) |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A formal working group, expert panel or dialogue |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Third sector organisations |
Results and Impact | The meeting was between the Cannabis Africana team and the leadership of the WADPN. The purpose was to explore cooperation between our two teams. Cannabis Africana team will provide research findings, whilst WADP disseminate them, and use them in their policy engagement work across West Africa. Resources permitting, our research model will be replicated in other West African countries. Where training needs are identified by the WADPN, we will use contacts from our network to facilitate the meeting of those needs. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
Description | Healing Disruption: Other Histories of Intoxication and 'Addiction' |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Third sector organisations |
Results and Impact | We presented a paper on intoxication and addiction, drawing from our research project. The aim was to highlight the contested nature of concepts such as intoxication. There was much interest on our paper, with many wishing to engage us on findings from our study. There was also interest from the audience that we should keep them up to date with developments in our research project. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
Description | Presentation at NatCen Social Research |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Third sector organisations |
Results and Impact | We were invited to present on our research project, focusing on cannabis and livelihoods in Africa. The purpose was to disseminate our research work, initial findings and engage with members of the third sector organisations. The impact was sharing of ideas and some research findings, which could inform the decisions, strategies and engagements by participants. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
Description | Project Blog article |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | 1. We published a blog article on 2 March 2022 on our project website. The purpose was to disseminate the initial findings from our study, and to encourage engagement from the public with our project. 2. The link to the article was shared on our project Twitter handle for wider reach and coverage. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
URL | https://cannabisafricana.blogs.bristol.ac.uk/2022/03/02/cannabis-agrarian-change-and-crisis-conteste... |
Description | UK drug policy activist workshop on Drugs in Africa |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Third sector organisations |
Results and Impact | UK drug policy activist workshop on Drugs in Africa at Transform Drug Policy Foundation, Bristol |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |