Pandemic Policing: public attitudes towards compliance and organisational resilience
Lead Research Organisation:
University of Portsmouth
Department Name: Institute of Criminal Justice Studies
Abstract
The UK's COVID-19 response has provided the police with new powers which potentially impinge upon civil liberties, altering the nature of policing activities. National policing bodies have encouraged a compliance not coercion approach based upon the 4 E's of Engage, Explain, Encourage and Enforce. In an innovative collaboration between the University of Portsmouth and Hampshire Constabulary, this research considers the impact of pandemic policing on the police and the public. It seeks to analyse the experiences of police officers and police leaders in exceptional circumstances and to explore the physical and psychological challenges of pandemic policing. This knowledge will provide evidence of i) organisational resilience, risk identification and effective decision-making, ii) strategies for the maintenance of future service delivery and iii) the impact of pandemic policing on police wellbeing. The research will also consider how the worldviews of individuals influence their perceptions of COVID-19 restrictions, their willingness to comply and key drivers of compliance/non-compliance which will shape the medium-long term police response. This knowledge will provide evidence of iv) effective policing in a crisis, v) public satisfaction/confidence in the police, vi) whether and for how long the public are willing to suspend their civil liberties and vii) factors that underlie any social/spatial variability. The link between perceptions of police legitimacy and willingness to comply means this understanding is crucial. Research findings will be scaled up into evidenced-based policing policies/practices nationally and its impact assessed and practices modified over the period of the crisis and beyond.
Publications
Ghaemmaghami A
(2021)
Responding to the Public during a Pandemic: Perceptions of 'Satisfactory' and 'Unsatisfactory' Policing
in Policing: A Journal of Policy and Practice
Newiss G
(2022)
Taking the strain? Police well-being in the COVID-19 era.
in The police journal
Charman S
(2022)
'Giving the right service to different people': revisiting police legitimacy in the Covid-19 era
in Policing and Society
| Description | Data analysis is ONGOING and these findings represent a part of the research. 1. Policing and the police environment have in recent years been transformed due to changes to crime types and harms plus the changing nature of police demand amidst reductions in police numbers. These challenges have come at the same time as a global pandemic began to sweep around the world in early 2020, with ongoing significant economic, health and social consequences. As part of a substantial research project on policing the pandemic, a public survey was conducted in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight in the south of England on people's perception of policing during the pandemic. Four questions provided the opportunity for participants to provide unlimited free-text responses of their perception of policing during the crisis. Responses were coded and then thematically analysed to identify any emergent themes concerning public compliance and policing during the lockdown. Subthemes surrounding communication, efficiency and equity emerged from participant's perceptions of what they considered to be 'satisfactory' and 'unsatisfactory' forms of policing during the pandemic. A common sub-theme of the public not being taken seriously and confusion over the role of the police were also countered by a public acknowledgement that the police were 'doing their best' in the crisis. The pandemic seemed to throw into sharper relief pre-crisis public perceptions of appropriate policing. In particular, the free-text responses highlighted the ongoing tensions between normative and instrumental approaches to policing and public expectations of police actions. 2. A survey of police officers and staff sought to understand police perceptions and experiences of implementing COVID-19 policing policies. The key findings of this survey were that: a) Police staff are more positive than police officers about leadership, communications and flexibility within their organisation. b) When considering scores on wellbeing, police staff scored most highly followed by police community support officers with police officers having the lowest scores on wellbeing. c) There was a link between a longer length of service in the police and lower perceptions of wellbeing. d) Those in more senior ranks in the police felt most positively about their safety and these perceptions fell in a linear progression down to the lowest rank of Constable. e) Those in more senior ranks in the police felt most positively about their sense of 'belonging' and these perceptions fell in a linear progression down to the lowest rank of Constable. f) In free text comments, police officers and staff expressed most positivity about changes to home working and the flexibility that brought plus the higher threshold to deploy to incidents. g) Police officers and staff felt that the changed practices working least well were social distancing in offices, single crewing, IT support and for some, the adverse impacts arising from working at home. Findings in relation to social trust: We considered the relationship between an emergent decay of social trust created by the Covid-19 pandemic and the formation of 'in' and 'out' groups. Data from 37 extensive semi-structured interviews with members of the public in England found that identifying the 'other' through normative conceptions of 'security and order' was used by participants to legitimise their own presence within the 'in' group while self-reported compliance with restrictions was used to construct identities to be in line with that of the 'in' group. These findings have important implications both for social trust within and between communities and towards the police. Findings in relation to police legitimacy: The suspension of certain civil liberties and the extension of police powers to combat the spread of the Covid-19 pandemic has provoked concerns about the longer-term implications of the pandemic on police legitimacy. Drawing upon pathways to police legitimacy identified within the literature, we examined police officers' perceptions of the impacts on, and potential challenges to, police legitimacy arising from the pandemic. Qualitative interviews, video diaries and focus groups were conducted with police officers in one police force area in England, captured over a five month period in winter 2020/21 covering rapid changes to the restrictions and the consequent demands on the public. We caution that any gains in public perceptions of procedural justice through using enforcement measures only as a last resort, may be offset by losses in other pathways to legitimacy. Many research participants voiced concern that the policing of Covid-19 has accentuated divisions in society, exacerbating the sense of multiple publics to police, with different and often competing expectations of - and beliefs about - the police. That enforcement has fallen more heavily on some groups, communities and locations risks exacerbating long-standing concerns about distributive fairness. The potential for a perceived lack of enforcement together with changes in service provision to increase instrumental pressures on policing cannot be discounted. As agents of social control with unique powers to exercise force and compulsion, the pandemic will require the police and agencies concerned with policing to exercise continued vigilance on the means by which public consent and support are sustained. Findings in relation to public compliance: The policing of lockdown restrictions during the COVID-19 crisis relied heavily on public compliance. Understanding the basis and extent of compliance behaviours in a pandemic is essential to maintain a normative framework of policing, where the actions of police are viewed as legitimate and operating within social norms. We explored perceptions of, and attitudes towards, compliance with lockdown restrictions and assesses the relationships between perceptions of compliance and key demographic characteristics. Analysis of survey data suggested a clear distinction in people's perception of how they had complied as individuals relative to the general population. Significantly, respondents' perceptions of other individual's and group's compliance decreased the further their social or spatial distance from the respondent. Analysis of the underlying structure using PCA provided the basis for extracting seven key components that underlie public compliance with lockdown restrictions. Female respondents were more likely to self-report engaging in compliance behaviours and less likely to have approved of the early easing of lockdown measures. Essential/keyworkers were more like to self-report not complying well, and close examination of post-hoc tests regarding age suggested that older population groups were more likely to perceive their closer social environment as more compliant and be more positive about police performance during the pandemic. These findings may help further understand mechanisms of perceived compliance and differences in such perceptions between the self and other groups. |
| Exploitation Route | Important findings are emerging in relation to a) the wellbeing and sense of belonging of police officers working on the frontline during the pandemic and b) the future relationship between the public and the police. Police legitimacy and public confidence in policing are vital components of the policing by consent model of policing within the UK and both are indicators of future compliance with the police. A thorough consideration of this data is therefore required for an understanding of how the impact of policing Covid-19 restrictions may have a future impact on these relationships. Policing services need to consider the impact of the findings on their workforce and also on the relationship between their organisation and the communities they serve. This will be particularly important for those groups who have been socially and economically affected most by Covid-19 but also by those who have felt the Covid-19 restrictions most noticeably. Dissatisfaction with the policing organisation can lead to lower levels of compliance, lower levels of crime reporting and lower levels of confidence. All of these can impact upon crime rates and crime victimisation. |
| Sectors | Communities and Social Services/Policy,Government, Democracy and Justice |
| Description | The findings have been submitted to the Home Affairs Select Committee on preparedness for Covid-19. The findings have been presented to the UK Health Security Agency. |
| First Year Of Impact | 2021 |
| Sector | Government, Democracy and Justice |
| Impact Types | Societal,Policy & public services |
| Description | Presentation to UK Government Agency |
| Geographic Reach | National |
| Policy Influence Type | Contribution to a national consultation/review |
| Description | Senior Police Officer presentation and workshop - This event presented the initial findings of a study looking at the police response to Covid breaches, followed by a workshop discussion with departmental leads. The outcomes showed significant differences in police response to policing Covid breaches between lockdown 1 and lockdown 3 showing improvements in use of the 4Es (Engage, Explain, Encourage and Enforce). The organisational learning department used the findings to inform the wider force and to document how various interventions throughout each lockdown have developed. This is being used to target future training requirements, eradicate issues and refine the response to Covid breaches. |
| Geographic Reach | Local/Municipal/Regional |
| Policy Influence Type | Influenced training of practitioners or researchers |
| Description | Written evidence submitted to Home Affairs Select Committee |
| Geographic Reach | National |
| Policy Influence Type | Contribution to a national consultation/review |
| Title | Pandemic Policing: Public Attitudes Towards Compliance and Organisational Resilience, 2020-2021 |
| Description | + Anonymised_focus_group_transcripts + Anonymised_Police_Video_Diary_Transcripts + Anonymised_police_transcripts The UK's COVID-19 response has provided the police with new powers which potentially impinge upon civil liberties, altering the nature of policing activities. National policing bodies have encouraged a compliance not coercion approach based upon the 4 E's of Engage, Explain, Encourage and Enforce. In an innovative collaboration between the University of Portsmouth and Hampshire Constabulary, this research considers the impact of pandemic policing on the police and the public. It seeks to analyse the experiences of police officers and police leaders in exceptional circumstances and to explore the physical and psychological challenges of pandemic policing. This knowledge will provide evidence of i) organisational resilience, risk identification and effective decision-making, ii) strategies for the maintenance of future service delivery and iii) the impact of pandemic policing on police wellbeing. The research will also consider how the worldviews of individuals influence their perceptions of COVID-19 restrictions, their willingness to comply and key drivers of compliance/non-compliance which will shape the medium-long term police response. This knowledge will provide evidence of iv) effective policing in a crisis, v) public satisfaction/confidence in the police, vi) whether and for how long the public are willing to suspend their civil liberties and vii) factors that underlie any social/spatial variability. The link between perceptions of police legitimacy and willingness to comply means this understanding is crucial. Research findings will be scaled up into evidenced-based policing policies/practices nationally and its impact assessed and practices modified over the period of the crisis and beyond. The dataset includes: + Anonymised_survey_data + Anonymised_Public_Transcripts Documentation: + Consent_Information_Forms + Surveys + Interview_schedules |
| Type Of Material | Database/Collection of data |
| Year Produced | 2021 |
| Provided To Others? | Yes |
| Impact | Data currently downloaded 36 times with 91 file downloads and 54 data file downloads. |
| URL | https://reshare.ukdataservice.ac.uk/855315/ |
| Description | LSE blog post |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | A blog post to the LSE Covid-19 blog run by the School of Social Policy. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
| URL | https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/covid19/2021/02/16/damned-if-they-do-damned-if-they-dont-public-sentiment-to... |
| Description | Magazine article |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | Magazine article focussed upon the impacts of Covid-19 |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
| URL | https://viewer.joomag.com/solve-magazine-issue-03-2021/0451007001630041161?short& |
| Description | Magazine article |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Industry/Business |
| Results and Impact | Magazine article examining the impact of Covid-19 restrictions on compliance. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
| URL | https://australiansecuritymagazine.com.au/uk-public-demand-for-stricter-policing-method/ |
| Description | Magazine article |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
| Results and Impact | Magazine article examining public views on lockdown. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
| URL | https://www.miragenews.com/public-demand-for-stricter-policing-method-588754/ |
| Description | Podcast |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A broadcast e.g. TV/radio/film/podcast (other than news/press) |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | The podcast focussed upon democracy and looked at the impact of Covid-19 on the issue. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
| URL | https://podfollow.com/1523475452/episode/798b8803dd5664b5fcbe0a80bcdde4568627e2ac/view |
| Description | Presentation |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | National |
| Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
| Results and Impact | Charman, S. and Ghaemmaghami, A. (2021). Responding to the Police During a Pandemic: Perceptions of 'Satisfactory' and 'Unsatisfactory' Policing. Invited speaker for University of Oxford's Policing Research Discussion Group, 8 November. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
| URL | https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/events/responding-public-during-pandemic-perceptions-satisfactory-and-unsat... |
| Description | Presentation to Government Agency |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | National |
| Primary Audience | Policymakers/politicians |
| Results and Impact | We were invited by the UK Health Security Agency to present our findings about public attitudes towards compliance as the Omicron strain of Covid-19 began to gain momentum. Charman, S. and Bennett, S. (2021). Policing the Pandemic: Public Attitudes towards Compliance and Cooperation with the Police. Presentation to the UK Health Security Agency, 3rd December. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
| Description | Presentation to London Policing Seminar Series 2021 |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | The Institute for Global City Policing at UCL and the Canterbury Centre for Policing Research at CCCU are jointly hosting a series of seminars in 2021. These events will explore a range of contemporary issues in policing, and will feature both academic and practitioner perspectives. There were over 300 delegates registered for this event. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
| URL | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fsQ6tQpaczA |
| Description | Press release - public compliance |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
| Results and Impact | This press release on public compliance with Covid-19 restrictions was released on 20th January 2021. It was reported on by the following news outlets: The News (Portsmouth) Monthly Visitors: 1,496,777 (United Kingdom) AboutMyArea Monthly Visitors: 37,457 (United Kingdom) Mirage News Australia Monthly Visitors: 107,126 (Australia) WalesOnline Monthly Visitors: 11,890,000 (United Kingdom) BBC Radio 4 Audience: 11,332,000 (United Kingdom) CoventryLive Monthly Visitors: 3,349,294 (United Kingdom Hull Live Monthly Visitors: 1,024,000 (United Kingdom) Heart Thames Valley Monthly Visitors: 923,000 (United Kingdom) Heart South Coast Monthly Visitors: 923,000 (United Kingdom) BBC Radio 2 Monthly Visitors: 428,339 (United Kingdom) BBC Radio Manchester Audience: 266,000 (United Kingdom) BBC Radio Cumbria Audience: 116,000 (United Kingdom) BBC Radio Lincolnshire Audience: 102,000 (United Kingdom) BBC Radio Gloucestershire Audience: 85,000 (United Kingdom) BBC Norfolk Sport - BBC Radio Norfolk (United Kingdom) |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
| URL | https://www.port.ac.uk/news-events-and-blogs/news/new-study-shows-public-thinks-they-are-sticking-to... |
| Description | Professional journal article |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | National |
| Primary Audience | Professional Practitioners |
| Results and Impact | Article examining the public attitudes towards lockdown restrictions and policing methods. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
| URL | https://www.policeprofessional.com/news/public-wants-stricter-policing-of-coronavirus-restrictions/ |
| Description | Radio Interview - Express FM |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Local |
| Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
| Results and Impact | Radio interview with Express FM to discuss results published in University of Portsmouth press release on 20th January 2021. Interview begins at 9 mins. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
| URL | https://www.expressfm.com/podcasts/express-this-week/episode/national-museum-of-the-royal-navy-littl... |