Nuclear structure in extremely exotic systems explored by laser spectroscopy of pure ion beams.

Atomic nuclei form the fundamental building blocks for most of what we see around us. Understanding the quantum arrangement of protons and neutrons within the nucleus, their stability, the nature of the forces which hold them together and even how the elements were formed in the universe are the subject of nuclear structure research. Surrounding the nucleus, orbiting electrons occupy quantum 'shelves' at discrete energies, with an arrangement largely dependent upon the proton number (ie. element) under study. However, on a hyperfine level, these energy levels move and split as a result of changing nuclear properties such as size, shape, magnetization and quantum spin as neutrons are added to create different isotopes. Precision lasers can be used to excite electrons between these levels to reveal such properties. To more fully understand the nature of the nuclear forces we need to know how nuclear properties change for exotic nuclei with unnatural combinations of proton and neutron numbers (Z and N). Such nuclei may live for less than a millisecond. Produced with a distribution in N and Z from nuclear reactions at 'isotope factories', they are electrostatically transported as a beam of ions to a station for spectroscopy. A specific mass (N+Z) is selected using in-flight magnetic deflection, but how can we choose a single element? The isotope (N,Z) we wish to study may be a part per million of the total beam selected by mass only. A few sheep would be hard to see in a field of a million goats. New international facilities aim to produce more, but will not fulfill their potential if they produce more of both. This is a long standing problem in nuclear physics research. To a laser beam, quantum electron levels provide a fingerprint for each element. At a characteristic frequency of light, the electrons are excited between levels in one element alone. Moreover, a combination of laser beams and excitation steps will remove an additional electron altogether. A bunch of ions (released from a trap, with ample time to interact with the laser) with two electrons removed from their neutral atomic state rather than one, and therefore twice the charge, will travel to the spectroscopy station faster under electrostatic acceleration. Arriving earlier, only nuclei of a single N and Z will be present, and other combinations (all arriving later) kicked away. Using a laser to study (as well as purify) the beam of nuclei reveals all the properties above by detecting photons emitted by electrons relaxing back after excitation as a function of frequency. Purification will allow lasers to study nuclei which are produced at a rate of less than one per second (compared with 1000/s required today), and irrespective of what other elements with isotopes of the same mass are present. Within the nucleus, neutrons and protons each occupy their own quantum shelves, lying at discrete energies. These are filled sequentially, and the interaction between nucleons raises or lowers their energy as the levels are filled. Level migrations, the consequent changes to the energy gaps between them or even a reordering, fundamentally affect the nuclear properties. These measurements will provide a sensitive probe of species far from stability in order to understand nuclear interactions. Lying at the corner stone of the natural (and unnatural) world nuclear science finds applications beyond its chapter. It has long been suspected that thorium-229 contains an isomer - that is, a nuclear state excited in energy which lives at least momentarily. If observed, this would have the lowest energy of any seen in nature and could be the first demonstration of nuclear excitation with a laser. Considerable interest has been gathered to use the isomer as an accurate clock (from an oscillating nuclear transition), testing Einstein's theory of relativity and how constant the fundamental physical constants really are - one of the greatest unanswered problems in physics.