Why do Muslims underperform in the job market? A mixed methods inquiry assessing Muslims' poor labour market performance in England
Lead Research Organisation:
University of Bristol
Department Name: Sociology
Abstract
It is widely held that Muslims suffer a 'Muslim penalty' in the UK labour market. Indeed, not only are they more likely to be unemployed, but they are also less likely to occupy a high-tier position than similarly qualified non-Muslims. In fact, in 2017, the Social Mobility Commission found that 'Muslims experience the greatest economic disadvantages of any group in UK society' (Social Mobility Commission, 2017, p.5). However, available research on the 'Muslim penalty' suffers from a lacuna because it chiefly centres on Muslims from an Asian background, and neglects the diversity of the group. Indeed, when ethnicity is alleged to have been considered, either the focus is predominantly put on Bangladeshi and Pakistani Muslims (see Brown, 2000; Lindley, 2002), or certain ethnic groups are excluded from the study altogether (see Khattab and Modood, 2015: 502). Thus, effectively, 'Asian' ethno-cultural norms are being used as a proxy for Islamic ones. This is inaccurate, and brings into question the conclusion that a 'Muslim penalty' exists.
Therefore, answers to the following questions remain unsatisfactory. Are 'Muslims' in England penalised in the job market because of their faith? How do Muslims from distinct ethnic backgrounds perceive their barriers to labour market integration? I will answer these questions by undertaking a two-step mixed methods investigation. First, through a longitudinal study I will assess if we can indeed speak of a Muslim penalty. To do this, using data from the Understanding Society: The UK Household Longitudinal Study (UKHLS), I will investigate if being Muslim carries a higher risk of being unemployed than not being Muslim. I will also undertake a duration analysis to examine the length of time it takes for unemployed Muslims to transition into employment relative to non-Muslims. Thereafter, I will examine if being Muslim carries with it a higher probability of lower income than not being Muslim, and whether, if having lost their job, Muslims suffer a more severe earnings penalty (if at all) relative to non-Muslims with the same ethnic background, and the wider population.
The investigation will focus on working age adult Muslims, not in full-time education, from different ethnicities where there is a sufficient number of Muslims (e.g. White, Black Caribbean, Black African, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Indian, and Arab). Some of the key variables I will use from the dataset include socio-economic characteristics, religion, cultural participation, ethnicity, and discrimination. In addition to a wealth of variables, the UKHLS offers many other advantages, including a large sample size (40,000 households), and eight waves of data (2009-2018). Moreover, given its panel design, the Ethnic Minority Boost Sample (n=6,000), and the fact the survey includes an emphasis on ethnicity-related questions, the UKHLS is ideal for this investigation. Second, I will undertake a qualitative study to investigate the quantitative findings in further detail. More specifically, through semi-structured one-to-one and focus group interviews with 60 participants - recruited through a snowballing technique via mosques and community associations across England after taking into account ethical considerations - I will explore what Muslims' own perception of the causes of labour market disadvantages are. That is, if they are perceived to be due to self-imposed barriers, perceived discrimination, or both. By undertaking a vignette study during the interviews, I will gather quantitative data from the participants to gain a better understanding of the values and motivations that drive their interaction with the job market. In terms of data analysis, after transcription, I will use topic models to unearth, through a mathematical framework, key themes (and their relative importance) to understand how Muslims in England negotiate their labour market challenges.
Therefore, answers to the following questions remain unsatisfactory. Are 'Muslims' in England penalised in the job market because of their faith? How do Muslims from distinct ethnic backgrounds perceive their barriers to labour market integration? I will answer these questions by undertaking a two-step mixed methods investigation. First, through a longitudinal study I will assess if we can indeed speak of a Muslim penalty. To do this, using data from the Understanding Society: The UK Household Longitudinal Study (UKHLS), I will investigate if being Muslim carries a higher risk of being unemployed than not being Muslim. I will also undertake a duration analysis to examine the length of time it takes for unemployed Muslims to transition into employment relative to non-Muslims. Thereafter, I will examine if being Muslim carries with it a higher probability of lower income than not being Muslim, and whether, if having lost their job, Muslims suffer a more severe earnings penalty (if at all) relative to non-Muslims with the same ethnic background, and the wider population.
The investigation will focus on working age adult Muslims, not in full-time education, from different ethnicities where there is a sufficient number of Muslims (e.g. White, Black Caribbean, Black African, Pakistani, Bangladeshi, Indian, and Arab). Some of the key variables I will use from the dataset include socio-economic characteristics, religion, cultural participation, ethnicity, and discrimination. In addition to a wealth of variables, the UKHLS offers many other advantages, including a large sample size (40,000 households), and eight waves of data (2009-2018). Moreover, given its panel design, the Ethnic Minority Boost Sample (n=6,000), and the fact the survey includes an emphasis on ethnicity-related questions, the UKHLS is ideal for this investigation. Second, I will undertake a qualitative study to investigate the quantitative findings in further detail. More specifically, through semi-structured one-to-one and focus group interviews with 60 participants - recruited through a snowballing technique via mosques and community associations across England after taking into account ethical considerations - I will explore what Muslims' own perception of the causes of labour market disadvantages are. That is, if they are perceived to be due to self-imposed barriers, perceived discrimination, or both. By undertaking a vignette study during the interviews, I will gather quantitative data from the participants to gain a better understanding of the values and motivations that drive their interaction with the job market. In terms of data analysis, after transcription, I will use topic models to unearth, through a mathematical framework, key themes (and their relative importance) to understand how Muslims in England negotiate their labour market challenges.
People |
ORCID iD |
Siobhan McAndrew (Primary Supervisor) | |
Samir Sweida-Metwally (Student) |
Publications

Sweida-Metwally S
(2022)
Does the Muslim penalty in the British labour market dissipate after accounting for so-called "sociocultural attitudes"?
in Ethnic and Racial Studies

Sweida-Metwally S
(2020)
Why Britain should not follow Germany's approach to recognising its racist legacy
in The Open Review

Sweida-Metwally, S.
(2021)
Spending Ethically for Justice: A Muslim Response to the Uyghur Genocide
in Yaqeen Institute for Islamic Research
Studentship Projects
Project Reference | Relationship | Related To | Start | End | Student Name |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
ES/P000630/1 | 30/09/2017 | 29/09/2028 | |||
2170265 | Studentship | ES/P000630/1 | 11/03/2019 | 09/06/2022 | Samir Sweida-Metwally |
Description | My research makes four major contributions. From a methodological perspective it advances a novel multidimensional conceptualisation of job quality and offers researchers a ready-made empirical job quality index that is easily reproducible, statistically robust, and suitable for analysing a multicultural workforce. Second, the study deepens our understanding of the Muslim penalty in job quantity from two perspectives. By analysing a greater range of ethnic groups it suggests that beyond colour and religion, the Muslim penalty might also be moderated by a person's country of origin. Moreover, by finding that considerable penalties remain for Muslims even after adjusting for so-called 'sociocultural attitudes', it challenges the assumption that value orientations offer a suitable explanation for the Muslim penalty. Third, the study unites two hitherto separate fields, job quality and ethnic penalty research. In doing so, my study reveals, for the first time, the extent to which variances in job quality are differentiated by religious and ethno-religious affiliation. It reveals that religious minority groups likely benefit to a lesser extent than their Christian White British peers when occupying superior quality jobs, and experience relatively lower job quality still when in poor quality occupations. The study shows that it is generally Muslim women who are most disadvantaged, on average, and that their penalty cannot be explained by individual or work characteristics. As a result, my study extends the ethnic penalties scholarship by offering a more rounded view of the nature and extent of the Muslim penalty beyond the confines of job quantity. My research also brings to light the surprising finding that certain ethno-religious groups traditionally understood as disadvantaged from a job quantity perspective, might in fact be advantaged/disadvantaged from a job quality standpoint. Fourthly, and finally, the thesis makes an important contribution by advancing company- and societal-level solutions to attenuate the Muslim penalty and other religious inequalities and build a more inclusive society. |
Exploitation Route | The research can be used to encat policies that promote equality and wellbeing at work for all workers in Britain. |
Sectors | Communities and Social Services/Policy Government Democracy and Justice |
Description | Finings discussed in TV interview/media interview. Research covered in the Guardian newspaper (online and in print) and in international news outlets. Presented findings to a range of researchers in the UK and abroad, including to various teams (Race Disparity Audit Steering Group, the Labour Market team, and Impact Evaluation & Regression Analysis Group) at the DWP. |
Sector | Communities and Social Services/Policy |
Impact Types | Societal |
Description | Cardiff University PhD Bursary |
Amount | £117 (GBP) |
Organisation | Cardiff University |
Sector | Academic/University |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 05/2022 |
End | 06/2022 |
Description | PGR Development Fund Award |
Amount | £500 (GBP) |
Organisation | University of Bristol |
Sector | Academic/University |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 06/2020 |
End | 07/2020 |
Description | University of Bristol Alumni Travel Grant |
Amount | £550 (GBP) |
Organisation | University of Bristol |
Sector | Academic/University |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 05/2022 |
End | 06/2022 |
Description | The Cumberland Lodge |
Organisation | Cumberland Lodge |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Charity/Non Profit |
PI Contribution | Selected for a 2 year Fellowship with the Cumberland Lodge |
Collaborator Contribution | An opportunity for me to contribute and work with the third sector |
Impact | Participated in conferences and workshops including chairing a panel, moderating group discussions, contributing to social mobility report, authoring a blog, and leading a podcast interview. Partook in training to enhance public engagement skills, networking, communication and interdisciplinary working. |
Start Year | 2020 |
Description | UK Research and Innovation Policy Internship Scheme |
Organisation | Department for Work and Pensions |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Public |
PI Contribution | Selected for prestigious 3-month funded UK Research and Innovation Policy Internship Scheme with the DWP. Led a project investigating the movements, behaviours and finances of the self-employed in the UK. Analysed administrative data (1 million+ observations), composed report, and presented findings to senior policy teams. |
Collaborator Contribution | The internship gave me an opportunity to work with policymakers. |
Impact | Composed report, and presented findings to senior policy teams. |
Start Year | 2020 |
Description | A podcast conversation with Dr Valentina Di Stasio |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A broadcast e.g. TV/radio/film/podcast (other than news/press) |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | To diversify my research output, in addition to papers, conferences, videos and blogs, I also planned and led a podcast conversation with Dr Valentina Di Stasio at Utrecht University entitled "Ethnicity & Religion in Recruitment". |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
URL | https://www.cumberlandlodge.ac.uk/read-watch-listen/life-perspectives-ep-3-ethnicity-religion-recrui... |
Description | Presenting findings to a range of divisions at the Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Policymakers/politicians |
Results and Impact | From a policy perspective, I was invited to share my findings with a range of divisions at the Department for Work and Pensions (DWP). I presented my research to the DWP Race Disparity Audit Steering Group (Jan 2021), the Impact Evaluation & Regression Analysis Group (Jan 2021), and I gave a presentation to the analytical, policy, and labour market teams (Dec 2020). I was also invited to present my research as part of the Leeds Social Science Institute Seminar Series which brings together academics and DWP practitioners for open discussion (Jun 2021). |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2020,2021 |
Description | in-depth 20-minute interview |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Media (as a channel to the public) |
Results and Impact | I was also invited to give an in-depth 20-minute interview entitled, "The lowdown on the Muslim penalty", on the Islam Channel. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
URL | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XkIaga83zqg |
Description | symposium |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A formal working group, expert panel or dialogue |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | Local |
Primary Audience | Other audiences |
Results and Impact | I also organised and chaired an interdisciplinary lunchtime symposium entitled "Migrant workers or ethnic minority labour force - what's the difference, what's the same?". The symposium was co-hosted by the Centre for the Study of Ethnicity and Citizenship, and Migration Mobilities Bristol at the University of Bristol. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
Description | workshop on longitudinal panel data analysis |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | Local |
Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
Results and Impact | As my PhD is in Advanced Quantitative Methods, I also sought to add value to the academic community by making a methodological contribution. To that end, after successfully applying for funding, I designed and organised an all-day workshop on longitudinal panel data analysis for doctoral researchers across all six faculties at the University of Bristol (Sep 2020). |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2020 |