Engendering Chinese Nationalism: How Motherhood Features in Chinese Notions of Citizenship

Topic and aims: This research will explore the practical implementation of imagined national ideals of womanhood and motherhood in contemporary China, where there is an increased emphasis on traditional values in state rhetoric. This is combined with a post-socialist shift in emphasis from gender equality, with women valued as workers, to a focus on domesticity, beauty and the pursuit of a middle-class lifestyle. The aim is to uncover how contemporary state and popular discourses promote certain kind(s) of womanhood and motherhood as 'appropriate' and what this means in terms of female citizenship. I will also explore how capitalism/neoliberalism plays a role in Chinese nationalism, how it moulds images of womanhood and motherhood, and its role in the 'aspirational turn' of state-promoted feminism. This research will fill a gap in literature in Chinese Studies and Women's Studies, where womanhood and motherhood have largely been ignored in discussions on contemporary Chinese nationalism. This topic will be of interest to a wide range of actors, including feminist movements in China as well as overseas think-tanks and policy-makers.

Research questions
-How is neoliberalism and state ideology feeding into nationalist imaginings of motherhood and women's own understanding of it?
-What is the interplay between traditional Confucian values, masculinity and neoliberalism in contemporary Chinese nationalism? What are the feminist counter-narratives to this?
-What is the Maoist heritage in contemporary nationalist motherhood?
-How is gender constructed in contemporary nationalist state and popular discourses?
-How is the state ideology of motherhood constructed and disseminated? How does this impact on how women live their lives?

Contribution to the literature: Research on women in contemporary Chinese nationalism is limited and has largely focused on the performance of femininity in large-scale national and sporting events (Wu 2018, Zhang 2016) and consumer culture (Johansson 2015). Previous studies on contemporary Chinese nationalism or gender/women do not connect the two. Apart from Evans' (2010) work, motherhood is largely unchartered territory and it has not been directly discussed in the context of nationalism. Considering motherhood in relation to contemporary Chinese nationalism would therefore widen scholarly understanding of gender politics in contemporary China. It is important to understand the role(s) women play in contemporary Chinese nationalism, and also how women who do not conform are seen as a potential threat to the nation's stability. There is a new generation of feminist activists who do not feel compelled to uphold the family and thereby the patriarchal state. They may be single, queer, or simply opting for having no children. This causes consternation in a state which, in a time of rising social inequalities, is basing its legitimacy on Chinese traditional values such as the family.
Chinese domestic stability is of consequence given China's increasing political and economic significance in the world. Women play a central role in maintaining national stability, particularly through their role in the family, a core Confucian value, which is placed at the centre of national governance. (Sigley 2006). Women reproduce the nation as mothers (Anthias & Yuval-Davis 1989), not only through giving birth, but also through raising/educating their children. Chinese women have not only had to adhere to set quotas (one/two child policies), but also produce 'quality' offspring to strengthen the nation (Greenhalgh & Winkler 2005). They are under pressure to give birth before the age of 30 in order to ensure this and are stigmatised as 'leftover women' if they are not married by the age of 27 (To 2015). The discourse on quality children also relates to consumerism, requiring women to consume products designed for expectant mothers and also spend on children's education and extracurricular activities (Zhu 2010).