Reimagining Photovoltaics Manufacturing
Lead Research Organisation:
Northumbria University
Department Name: Fac of Engineering and Environment
Abstract
This programme, Reimagining Photovoltaics Manufacturing, is an adventurous and ambitious follow-on programme to an initial feasibility study, Photovoltaic Paint. It focuses on achieving the manufacturing research breakthroughs needed to enable a design-led approach to photovoltaics (PV) manufacturing which will result in much tighter aesthetic integration of PV with products in the built environment and automotive sectors. Ultimately, this will substantially increase the global deployment of sustainable electricity and disrupt the current model of PV manufacturing, creating significant commercial opportunities for the UK.
Current PV manufacturing relies critically on economies of scale with around two-thirds of manufacturing occurring in Asia. The problem with this approach is that PV modules are now highly standardised and only near-term competitive in large-scale, solar farm applications. This limits the rate at which PV deployment can grow globally in a period when tangible carbon dioxide savings are vital. A further disadvantage is that PV manufacturing is 95% based on silicon wafer technology which is brittle and requires capital intensive facilities. In turn, this limits the opportunities for seamless product integration to niche applications which are currently not cost effective.
Our central research hypothesis is that these barriers can be overcome using the manufacturing research outcomes from the initial Photovoltaic Paint programme. More specifically, in Reimagining Photovoltaics Manufacturing, we will apply new capabilities in slot-die coating and inkjet materials printing to create patterned and nature-inspired solar cells that are unlike anything available today. Furthermore, by replacing a carbon-intensive thermal processing step commonly used in the manufacturing of inorganic thin film solar cells with targeted laser annealing, we will be able to manufacture these solar cells on a wide range of useful substrates that allow aesthetic and economically viable integration of PV with products.
An important feature of our design-led approach to PV manufacturing is that it inherently prioritises sustainability. More specifically, we are targeting scalable, rapid and energy efficient manufacturing processes with low wastage and non-toxic materials. We will also assess the opportunity to recover and reuse valuable components of our solar cells as part of their end-of-life decommissioning.
The programme has two key routes to impact. Firstly, its design-led principles can be applied to several promising PV materials being developed by other research groups in the UK and around the world. Secondly, we will involve product designers and engineers with specific knowledge of innovation in key sectors, in our manufacturing research. This is novel and an important distinction to the current model which focuses on technology development and ultimately, the combination of these routes will create compelling new products and accelerate carbon savings worldwide.
Current PV manufacturing relies critically on economies of scale with around two-thirds of manufacturing occurring in Asia. The problem with this approach is that PV modules are now highly standardised and only near-term competitive in large-scale, solar farm applications. This limits the rate at which PV deployment can grow globally in a period when tangible carbon dioxide savings are vital. A further disadvantage is that PV manufacturing is 95% based on silicon wafer technology which is brittle and requires capital intensive facilities. In turn, this limits the opportunities for seamless product integration to niche applications which are currently not cost effective.
Our central research hypothesis is that these barriers can be overcome using the manufacturing research outcomes from the initial Photovoltaic Paint programme. More specifically, in Reimagining Photovoltaics Manufacturing, we will apply new capabilities in slot-die coating and inkjet materials printing to create patterned and nature-inspired solar cells that are unlike anything available today. Furthermore, by replacing a carbon-intensive thermal processing step commonly used in the manufacturing of inorganic thin film solar cells with targeted laser annealing, we will be able to manufacture these solar cells on a wide range of useful substrates that allow aesthetic and economically viable integration of PV with products.
An important feature of our design-led approach to PV manufacturing is that it inherently prioritises sustainability. More specifically, we are targeting scalable, rapid and energy efficient manufacturing processes with low wastage and non-toxic materials. We will also assess the opportunity to recover and reuse valuable components of our solar cells as part of their end-of-life decommissioning.
The programme has two key routes to impact. Firstly, its design-led principles can be applied to several promising PV materials being developed by other research groups in the UK and around the world. Secondly, we will involve product designers and engineers with specific knowledge of innovation in key sectors, in our manufacturing research. This is novel and an important distinction to the current model which focuses on technology development and ultimately, the combination of these routes will create compelling new products and accelerate carbon savings worldwide.
Organisations
- Northumbria University (Lead Research Organisation)
- Loughborough University (Collaboration)
- University of Oxford (Collaboration)
- Laser Optical Engineering (Collaboration, Project Partner)
- National Polytechnic Institute of Toulouse (INP Toulouse) (Collaboration)
- University of Warwick (Collaboration)
- Ritsumeikan University (Collaboration)
- Novacentrix (Project Partner)
- Corning SAS (Project Partner)
- Arup (Project Partner)
Publications
Campbell S
(2023)
Enhanced Carrier Collection in Cd/In-Based Dual Buffers in Kesterite Thin-Film Solar Cells from Nanoparticle Inks.
in ACS applied energy materials
Matheson E
(2023)
A comparison of ZnO nanowires grown using hexamethylenetetramine and ammonium hydroxide on Al:ZnO nanoparticle seed layer
in Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics
Jones MDK
(2024)
Ecodesign of Kesterite Nanoparticles for Thin Film Photovoltaics at Laboratory Scale.
in ACS sustainable chemistry & engineering
S Olavil-Karayi
(2025)
Energy efficient production: Diode laser annealing of thin film CZTS photovoltaic absorbers
Olavil-Karayi S
(2025)
Diode laser induced crystallization of CZTS thin films deposited on flexible molybdenum foils
in Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing
| Description | The main findings in 2023 for this grant award are: - Development of manufacturing technique that allows laser patterning of solar cells across different materials technologies - Integration of life-cycle assessment with manufacturing research process to identify hotspots for more sustainable manufacturing - Identification of key parameters for achieving recrystallisation of photovoltaic materials using laser processing The main findings in 2024 for this grant award are: - Optimisation of a manufacturing technique to pattern solar cells using lasers - Acquisition of data for life-cycle assessment - Life-cycle assessment of state-of-the-art silicon photovoltaics - Understanding the influence of social factors on preferences for photovoltaics - Life-cycle assessment of emerging photovoltaic technologies - Development of inkjet printing for photovoltaic applications - Development of new device layers for novel solar cell devices |
| Exploitation Route | The main scientific outcomes will be reported in 2024. We anticipate that these can be taken forward by other academics and industrialists. 2024 has seen many scientific advances in this project. Outputs include: - Oral presentations at 3 international conferences and 3 national conferences - Accepted papers in 2 academic journals 2024 has also seen significant public outreach engagement via the Life-Cycle Detectives workshops. |
| Sectors | Construction Education Energy Environment Transport |
| Description | 2023 Two key impacts from the award are: (1) engagement of >100 school-aged children with the research, providing inspiration for future careers and communicating the importance of the green economy; and (2) development of relationships with two new industry partners. We are in the process of agreeing an non-disclosure agreement with one of these partners. In addition, the project team engaged an Innovation Consultancy to collaboratively develop new product concepts for stakeholder engagement. Approximately 6 concepts were developed and these will be used to engage with the public and research funders as well as providing the basis for new social sciences research to investigate sustainability. 2024 A key highlight this year has been the development and delivery of the "Life-cycle Detectives" workshop series. This was prepared in collaboration with Northumbria University's flagship outreach NUSTEM team. The delivery was 6 workshops to >100 8-10 year old school children in the NE of England. The outcomes were measured via a questionnaire and a quantitative analysis of these outcomes indicates learning new knowledge and changed attitudes. The results have been accepted for the IEEE Frontiers in Education conference in the USA in 2025. Additionally, as a result of research outcomes, the Project Lead was contacted by a major solar farm developer in the UK to discuss a potential collaboration. This is ongoing and any updates will follow. |
| First Year Of Impact | 2023 |
| Sector | Education |
| Impact Types | Societal |
| Description | Advanced Thin Film Sputtering Fabrication Facility (TF-FAB) |
| Amount | £971,033 (GBP) |
| Funding ID | EP/X030202/1 |
| Organisation | Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) |
| Sector | Public |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Start | 03/2023 |
| End | 02/2026 |
| Description | EPSRC Centre for Doctoral Training in Renewable Energy Northeast Universities Plus (ReNU+) |
| Amount | £5,289,248 (GBP) |
| Funding ID | EP/Y035542/1 |
| Organisation | Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) |
| Sector | Public |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Start | 05/2024 |
| End | 09/2032 |
| Description | Materials Characterisation Laboratory - Surface Science Equipment |
| Amount | £1,000,000 (GBP) |
| Funding ID | PR/oys/jw/md/eh/23931 |
| Organisation | The Wolfson Foundation |
| Sector | Charity/Non Profit |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Start | 07/2023 |
| End | 07/2025 |
| Description | Collaboration with Laser Optical Engineering Limited |
| Organisation | Laser Optical Engineering |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Sector | Private |
| PI Contribution | Providing engineering input into the design of Diffractive Optical Elements which are to be used by the research team. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Laser Optical Engineering Limited is providing sample optical elements that we are using within the experimental laser work at Loughborough University. This utilises their optical design and manufacturing capability. |
| Impact | Optics are currently under development and will be installed at the university in Q1 2024 |
| Start Year | 2023 |
| Description | Collaboration with Loughborough University |
| Organisation | Loughborough University |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | Provided samples to co-investigators as part of EP/W010062/1. These samples were thin film solar cell light absorbers on different substrates. We also performed initial lifecycle analysis of nanoparticle inks for solar cell applications. |
| Collaborator Contribution | LU team performed laser annealing to assess potential recrystallisation of absorbers and effect on defects. LU team also provided LCA advice including contributions to PhD student supervision. |
| Impact | This is a multidisciplinary collaboration: Northumbria provides physics, materials science and engineering while Loughborough provides manufacturing expertise. |
| Start Year | 2022 |
| Description | Collaboration with Ritsumeikan University, Japan |
| Organisation | Ritsumeikan University |
| Country | Japan |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | Report on research results, conference abstract |
| Collaborator Contribution | Risumeikan University (Prof Takashi Minemoto group) provided a series of CIGS solar cells for laser patterning activities. |
| Impact | Improved development of the laser paterning process. Abstract submitted to IEEE PVSC-52 2024 |
| Start Year | 2023 |
| Description | Collaboration with University of Warwick |
| Organisation | University of Warwick |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | Through the project, the Northumbria team bring life-cycle assessment expertise including the ability to perform an LCA. The goal of this collaboration is to do an LCA on novel Si technologies with the aim of publishing novel insights and potentially, applying for funding. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Collaboration with Professor John Murphy focused on life-cycle assessment of silicon solar cells. John and collaborators from Oxford University provide information about manufacturing processes of PERC and TOPCon Si solar cells. These data a critically important for a life-cycle assessment which is the goal. |
| Impact | The collaboration is new (late 2023) and the first impacts are expected in 2024. Joint publication is now under review. |
| Start Year | 2023 |
| Description | Collaboration with the University of Oxford |
| Organisation | University of Oxford |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | Through the project, the Northumbria team bring life-cycle assessment expertise including the ability to perform an LCA. The goal of this collaboration is to do an LCA on novel Si technologies with the aim of publishing novel insights and potentially, applying for funding. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Collaboration with Associate Professor Sebastian Bonilla focused on life-cycle assessment of silicon solar cells. Sebastian and collaborators from Warwick University provide information about manufacturing processes of PERC and TOPCon Si solar cells. These data a critically important for a life-cycle assessment which is the goal. |
| Impact | The collaboration is new (late 2023) and the first impacts are expected in 2024. 2024 UPDATE: Oral presentation accepted at SiliconPV 2025, Oxford. Journal article on this work submitted and now under review. |
| Start Year | 2023 |
| Description | LCA collaboration with IPST-CNAM/INP |
| Organisation | National Polytechnic Institute of Toulouse (INP Toulouse) |
| Country | France |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | This is a collaboration with researchers who are expert in life-cycle assessment. Through our project, we have brought new research opportunities in LCA of photovoltaics i.e. we have brought the expertise in PV |
| Collaborator Contribution | The partners have brought LCA expertise and training. |
| Impact | Accepted paper and oral presentation at 32nd CIRP Conference on Life Cycle Engineering (LCE2025) in Manchester |
| Start Year | 2024 |
| Description | Being and Engineer |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Local |
| Primary Audience | Schools |
| Results and Impact | Year 2 activity - discussing what is involved in being an engineer. Gave general description of duties/daily tasks as an academic and discussed material selection for different applications including solar panels, food packaging, cars, furniture, etc. Some guided activities for the pupils carried out. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
| Description | Conference poster presentation at 49th IEEE PVSC, Philadelphia |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
| Results and Impact | Poster presentation viewed by >50 PhD students. Poster nominated for Best Poster Award. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
| Description | Life-cycle Detectives Workshop Series |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Regional |
| Primary Audience | Schools |
| Results and Impact | "Life Cycle Detectives (LCD)" an LCA education intervention for 8-10-year-olds, developed by project researchers and Northumbria University's NUSTEM outreach programme. The intervention allows children to explore the life cycle of different products through active-learning before calculating the environmental impact of single-use cups across different impact categories including climate change and resource depletion. This was delivered through SIX workshops in summer 2024 to 8-10 year old school children. Data analysis reveals high levels of enjoyment among children (94%), and unanimous teacher agreement about workshop pitch suitability. Regarding knowledge gain, 65% of children provided answers specific to life cycles or environmental impacts. Most children stated that they would change behaviour with 12% saying they would "help the environment" and an additional 52% identifying distinct examples. The findings have been submitted (and accepted) as an abstract at the 2025 Frontiers in Education conference in Nashville, USA. Our intention is to further develop the work by conducting the workshop in the USA at a partner institution and submit the findings to a journal. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| Description | Newcastle City Council Youth Climate Summit |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Regional |
| Primary Audience | Schools |
| Results and Impact | One of just 4 keynote talks at this Youth Climate Summit organised by Newcastle City Council to promote opportunities in the green economy and green jobs to Year 11, 12 and 13 students. This activity was complemented by an additional stand with relevant demonstrators that sparked interest among the delegates. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
| Description | Photovoltaic cell making workshop for school |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Local |
| Primary Audience | Schools |
| Results and Impact | This was a workshop at Malvin's Close Academy in Blyth which was hands-on and allowed approximately 50 school pupils (aged 7-8 years old) to make solar cells from fruit juice. The workshop took place on 25 Jan 2023. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
| Description | Poster pitch and presentation at PVSAT 2023 |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | National |
| Primary Audience | Professional Practitioners |
| Results and Impact | Oral pitch presentation and poster presentation at the 2023 Photovoltaics Science, Applications and Technology conference in London. This sparked considerable interest amongst conference delegates and the poster was awarded second prize in the Best Poster competition. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
| Description | STEMFEST 2024 Outreach Delivery |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Regional |
| Primary Audience | Schools |
| Results and Impact | Repeated delivery of interactive life-cycle assessment activities for school children. This work built on our development of a life-cycle assessment workshop, "Life-cycle detectives". |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| URL | https://stem-hub.co.uk/stemfest/ |
| Description | School Visit (Gateshead) |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Local |
| Primary Audience | Schools |
| Results and Impact | Talk at Greenside Primary School, Gateshead to Year 5. Approximately 60 pupils attended and pupils were highly engaged raising interesting questions e.g. "why do we need to cut down trees?" and "isn't it bad for animals if we cut down trees?" |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| Description | Tackling climate change with solar photovoltaics |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Regional |
| Primary Audience | Schools |
| Results and Impact | Talk as part of an evening lecture series organised by NUSTEM. Purpose of the talk was to inspire and engage students studying physics and science in research. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
| URL | https://nustem.uk/eveninglectures/ |
| Description | Talk at the International Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, Chicago, 2023 |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | LJ gave a presentation on laser annealing and recrystalisation of Cu2ZnSnS4 thin films. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
| URL | https://icaleo.org/program/icaleo-2023/laser-materials-microprocessing/microelectronics-2/17139 |