Bones of contention: The functional morphology and biomechanics of the mammalian os penis and os clitoridis
Lead Research Organisation:
Manchester Metropolitan University
Department Name: School of Science and the Environment
Abstract
When Darwin developed his theory of natural selection, he considered that individuals with characteristics most suited to their environment were more likely to survive and reproduce. A moth that is neatly camouflaged against a tree trunk is less likely to be eaten than the moth that is garishly coloured. However, Darwin also realized that some animals have features that do not appear to help them adapt to their environment. The elaborate tail feathers of male peacocks, for example, do not seem to be particularly advantageous when navigating the jungles of India. But Darwin suggested these characteristics are due to sexual selection; individuals with traits making them more likely to win a mate (through combat or display) will go on to produce more offspring. Deer antlers, lions' manes and dancing cranes are all examples of sexual selection at work.
The genitals of animals are especially likely to experience sexual selection as they play an essential role in the delivery and reception of sperm; an individual who cannot deliver sperm effectively will produce less offspring. In several groups of mammals (including monkeys, rats, dogs, moles and bats) the males have a bone located inside their penis, known as a baculum. Humans are the only apes who do not possess a baculum. Several lab-based studies on mice have shown that males with longer or wider bacula produce more offspring. Yet exactly how the baculum improves the mating success of males remains unknown. In some species, females also possess an equivalent bone located in the clitoris, known as the baubellum. Very little is known about this structure, and its function is even more enigmatic than that of the males.
In this project, I will investigate the function of these mysterious structures in the mammal skeleton. I will test several theories about how the baculum improves the mating success of males, including, i) stiffening the penis to help with insertion, ii) straightening the urethra to ensure sperm can be delivered, and iii) stimulating females to trigger ovulation. I will test whether the possession of a baubellum in females is related to how much competition they might experience to find a mate.
I will work with the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh to collect carcasses of many different species of deceased mammals, including both wild and zoo animals. Genitals will be removed from carcasses and will be CT scanned at Manchester's X-ray Imaging Facility. The CT scanning process is similar to technology used in hospitals to image broken bones, and allows us to visualize 3D internal structures of genitals without cutting into (and damaging) the objects. In some instances when the specimens are not valuable however, I will remove samples of soft tissue and bone and conduct tests to determine their strength and the arrangement of fibers inside the penis.
I will also conduct a unique experiment in which the penis of a rat will be removed and then artificially inflated. The penis will be placed in a loading rig inside an X-ray machine, and will be compressed and bent during a CT scan. This will be the first time the internal structure of the penis will be visualized whilst at the same time experiencing bending. This experiment will allow us to understand more about how the baculum bone behaves, and which regions of the penis are most stressed, during sex. Based on the X-ray scans, 3D digital models of penes (both with- and without bacula) will be created, and I will run virtual computer simulations of the penis to investigate the effect the bacula has on penis stiffness. Finally, I will travel to numerous museums in the UK and abroad to gather more data on the mysterious female bone, the baubellum.
By combining aspects of traditional anatomy with high-resolution x-ray scans and detailed 3D digital models, I hope to finally resolve one of the most puzzling enigmas in mammalian biology:
What is the benefit of a penis bone?
The genitals of animals are especially likely to experience sexual selection as they play an essential role in the delivery and reception of sperm; an individual who cannot deliver sperm effectively will produce less offspring. In several groups of mammals (including monkeys, rats, dogs, moles and bats) the males have a bone located inside their penis, known as a baculum. Humans are the only apes who do not possess a baculum. Several lab-based studies on mice have shown that males with longer or wider bacula produce more offspring. Yet exactly how the baculum improves the mating success of males remains unknown. In some species, females also possess an equivalent bone located in the clitoris, known as the baubellum. Very little is known about this structure, and its function is even more enigmatic than that of the males.
In this project, I will investigate the function of these mysterious structures in the mammal skeleton. I will test several theories about how the baculum improves the mating success of males, including, i) stiffening the penis to help with insertion, ii) straightening the urethra to ensure sperm can be delivered, and iii) stimulating females to trigger ovulation. I will test whether the possession of a baubellum in females is related to how much competition they might experience to find a mate.
I will work with the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh to collect carcasses of many different species of deceased mammals, including both wild and zoo animals. Genitals will be removed from carcasses and will be CT scanned at Manchester's X-ray Imaging Facility. The CT scanning process is similar to technology used in hospitals to image broken bones, and allows us to visualize 3D internal structures of genitals without cutting into (and damaging) the objects. In some instances when the specimens are not valuable however, I will remove samples of soft tissue and bone and conduct tests to determine their strength and the arrangement of fibers inside the penis.
I will also conduct a unique experiment in which the penis of a rat will be removed and then artificially inflated. The penis will be placed in a loading rig inside an X-ray machine, and will be compressed and bent during a CT scan. This will be the first time the internal structure of the penis will be visualized whilst at the same time experiencing bending. This experiment will allow us to understand more about how the baculum bone behaves, and which regions of the penis are most stressed, during sex. Based on the X-ray scans, 3D digital models of penes (both with- and without bacula) will be created, and I will run virtual computer simulations of the penis to investigate the effect the bacula has on penis stiffness. Finally, I will travel to numerous museums in the UK and abroad to gather more data on the mysterious female bone, the baubellum.
By combining aspects of traditional anatomy with high-resolution x-ray scans and detailed 3D digital models, I hope to finally resolve one of the most puzzling enigmas in mammalian biology:
What is the benefit of a penis bone?
Technical Summary
The mechanical behaviour of an individual's genitals directly impacts upon their fitness. If reproductive structures cannot function mechanically, the individual cannot deliver or receive sperm, and cannot produce viable offspring. Across five orders of mammals, males possess a mineralized element (os penis, or baculum) within the glans of the penis, which takes on a striking array of morphologically diverse forms. The homologous bone in females (os clitoridis, or baubellum) is much more sporadic, and its occurrence and morphology are almost entirely unknown. I seek to address the previously unanswered question: Is there a biomechanical function for the os penis and os clitoridis?
I will apply high-resolution contrast-enhanced microCT to a phylogenetically diverse sample of male and female mammalian genitalia to quantify internal anatomy. I propose a novel experiment to investigate the mechanical behaviour of the baculum and associated soft tissues whilst undergoing deformation in a loading rig housed with a microCT scanner. Detailed non-linear FEA models will be generated, and results validated against strains calculated during loading. I will rigorously test functional hypotheses for the baculum including: prevention of buckling during intromission; straightening the urethra during prolonged copulus, and stimulating those females characterized by induced ovulation. The occurrence and morphology of the os clitoridis will also be documented across mammals, and potential correlations to species mating systems investigated. This unique project will reveal previously hidden aspects of genital morphology and investigate their functional significance, and will transform our understanding of mammalian reproductive biology.
I will apply high-resolution contrast-enhanced microCT to a phylogenetically diverse sample of male and female mammalian genitalia to quantify internal anatomy. I propose a novel experiment to investigate the mechanical behaviour of the baculum and associated soft tissues whilst undergoing deformation in a loading rig housed with a microCT scanner. Detailed non-linear FEA models will be generated, and results validated against strains calculated during loading. I will rigorously test functional hypotheses for the baculum including: prevention of buckling during intromission; straightening the urethra during prolonged copulus, and stimulating those females characterized by induced ovulation. The occurrence and morphology of the os clitoridis will also be documented across mammals, and potential correlations to species mating systems investigated. This unique project will reveal previously hidden aspects of genital morphology and investigate their functional significance, and will transform our understanding of mammalian reproductive biology.
Planned Impact
There are two main beneficiaries to this project: the National Museum of Scotland and the engineering modeling and simulation community.
The National Museum of Scotland (NMS) hosts a natural history collection of international importance. Unusually amongst museums in the UK, NMS maintains a policy of active collection and curation of both native fauna and exotic zoo species under the supervision of the Principal Curator of Vertebrates Dr Andrew Kitchener (see attached Project Partner Letter of Support). Their collection of animal carcasses is unrivaled, and is an invaluable resource to researchers from a wide range of backgrounds. At present, however, lots of researchers are unaware of this potential. In my experience, many bio-engineers, chemists, material scientists and roboticists would also benefit from specimens sourced from NMS, alongside the traditional array of taxonomists, conservation biologists and palaeontologists. This project will ensure the collections of the NMS make an impact far beyond the museum by engaging with academic parties whom might not otherwise interact with zoological collections. This will result in future novel applications of natural history collections to answer important research questions.
NMS is in the top 20 of the most visited museums in the world, yet many visitors to natural history museums are unaware of the extent and diversity of the material stored away from public galleries within the collections. The NMS will benefit from this fellowship through an increased public awareness of the diversity of material available 'behind the scenes' and by shifting the perception of museum collections away from the cataloguing of 'dry dusty bones', towards active dynamic research specimens.
The engineering modeling and simulation community will benefit from this fellowship through the testing and distribution of new non-linear finite element analysis (FEA) code. Important stakeholders in this community include bioengineers, roboticists and clinicians. The community is well aware of the need to take a non-linear approach when modeling the behaviour of samples experiencing large strains and plastic deformation. Yet the extent to which currently available commercial FEA software can reliably model plastic deformation when compared to experimentally derived in vivo strains remains unclear, particularly in materials other than commonly studied bony tissues. This fellowship will, therefore, seek to provide assurance to this community as to the current benefits and limitations of this modeling approach. Additionally, a considerable proportion of the community (particularly those working for health services) do not have access to costly FEA software licenses such Abaqus or ANSYS. These groups will particularly benefit from the models and documentation created for ParaFEM as part of the proposed fellowship, as the software is entirely free and open-source.
Whilst sexual health and reproduction are undeniably topics of interest to the general public, there still remains a reluctance to openly discuss many aspects of reproductive anatomy. This is particularly the case when attempting to engage school-age children with sexual education. This fellowship will make reproductive biology a more accessible and thought-provoking topic for the general public by incorporating a wide diversity of mammals with 'weird and wonderful' genitalia, and applying novel imaging and 3D modeling techniques. By discussing the form and function of human reproductive organs in the broader evolutionary context of mammal sexual organs, my research will assist in overcoming the stigma associated with talking about sexual health.
The National Museum of Scotland (NMS) hosts a natural history collection of international importance. Unusually amongst museums in the UK, NMS maintains a policy of active collection and curation of both native fauna and exotic zoo species under the supervision of the Principal Curator of Vertebrates Dr Andrew Kitchener (see attached Project Partner Letter of Support). Their collection of animal carcasses is unrivaled, and is an invaluable resource to researchers from a wide range of backgrounds. At present, however, lots of researchers are unaware of this potential. In my experience, many bio-engineers, chemists, material scientists and roboticists would also benefit from specimens sourced from NMS, alongside the traditional array of taxonomists, conservation biologists and palaeontologists. This project will ensure the collections of the NMS make an impact far beyond the museum by engaging with academic parties whom might not otherwise interact with zoological collections. This will result in future novel applications of natural history collections to answer important research questions.
NMS is in the top 20 of the most visited museums in the world, yet many visitors to natural history museums are unaware of the extent and diversity of the material stored away from public galleries within the collections. The NMS will benefit from this fellowship through an increased public awareness of the diversity of material available 'behind the scenes' and by shifting the perception of museum collections away from the cataloguing of 'dry dusty bones', towards active dynamic research specimens.
The engineering modeling and simulation community will benefit from this fellowship through the testing and distribution of new non-linear finite element analysis (FEA) code. Important stakeholders in this community include bioengineers, roboticists and clinicians. The community is well aware of the need to take a non-linear approach when modeling the behaviour of samples experiencing large strains and plastic deformation. Yet the extent to which currently available commercial FEA software can reliably model plastic deformation when compared to experimentally derived in vivo strains remains unclear, particularly in materials other than commonly studied bony tissues. This fellowship will, therefore, seek to provide assurance to this community as to the current benefits and limitations of this modeling approach. Additionally, a considerable proportion of the community (particularly those working for health services) do not have access to costly FEA software licenses such Abaqus or ANSYS. These groups will particularly benefit from the models and documentation created for ParaFEM as part of the proposed fellowship, as the software is entirely free and open-source.
Whilst sexual health and reproduction are undeniably topics of interest to the general public, there still remains a reluctance to openly discuss many aspects of reproductive anatomy. This is particularly the case when attempting to engage school-age children with sexual education. This fellowship will make reproductive biology a more accessible and thought-provoking topic for the general public by incorporating a wide diversity of mammals with 'weird and wonderful' genitalia, and applying novel imaging and 3D modeling techniques. By discussing the form and function of human reproductive organs in the broader evolutionary context of mammal sexual organs, my research will assist in overcoming the stigma associated with talking about sexual health.
Organisations
- Manchester Metropolitan University (Fellow, Lead Research Organisation)
- Williamson Park Zoo (Collaboration)
- University of Manchester (Collaboration)
- UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM (Collaboration)
- University of Southern California (Collaboration)
- Royal Veterinary College (RVC) (Collaboration)
- NATIONAL MUSEUMS SCOTLAND (Collaboration)
- Mount Holyoke College (Collaboration)
- UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL (Collaboration)
- Memorial University of Newfoundland (Collaboration)
People |
ORCID iD |
Charlotte Brassey (Principal Investigator / Fellow) |
Publications
Arslan M
(2022)
SHREC'21: Quantifying shape complexity
in Computers & Graphics
Brassey C
(2020)
Postcopulatory sexual selection and the evolution of shape complexity in the carnivoran baculum
in Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
Brassey CA
(2018)
Testing hypotheses for the function of the carnivoran baculum using finite-element analysis.
in Proceedings. Biological sciences
Clear E
(2023)
Baculum shape complexity correlates to metrics of post-copulatory sexual selection in Musteloidea.
in Journal of morphology
Clear E
(2022)
A Review and Case Study of 3D Imaging Modalities for Female Amniote Reproductive Anatomy.
in Integrative and comparative biology
Gardiner JD
(2018)
Alpha shapes: determining 3D shape complexity across morphologically diverse structures.
in BMC evolutionary biology
Orbach DN
(2021)
3D genital shape complexity in female marine mammals.
in Ecology and evolution
Description | The mammalian baculum (penis bone) is widely considered to be one of the most morphologically diverse bones in the vertebrate body. Yet there is a surprising lack of consensus regarding the function of this enigmatic structure. Using a combination of dissection and traditional anatomical description, high-resolution x-ray computed tomography and novel biomechanical simulation approaches, this BBSRC Future Leader Fellowship set out to test pre-existing functional hypotheses for the mammalian baculum. Key developments resulting from the fellowship include: • A novel method ('alpha shapes') for quantifying 3D shape complexity in anatomical structures lacking discrete homologous landmarks, such as mammalian bacula and genital soft tissues. • Application of alpha shapes to the carnivoran baculum, indicating baculum morphological complexity evolves in response to postcopulatory sexual selection pressures. Socially monogamous species possess more complex bacula than group-living harem species. • Application of biomechanical computer simulation techniques to model the loading behaviour of the carnivoran baculum. Species copulating for extended durations possess more robust bacula, supporting the 'prolonged intromission' hypothesis. • Application of alpha shapes to the female reproductive tract of marine mammals. 3D complexity is driven by invaginations and protrusions of the vaginal wall. Pinnipeds possess comparatively simple vaginal tracts, corresponding to the present of a baculum in males. Female cetaceans and sirenians are characterised by more complex reproductive tracts, where conspecific males lack a baculum. At the time of writing, I have published 5 journal articles as a direct result of this fellowship research, with several more in the process of submission and review. Over the course of the fellowship, I have developed novel partnerships with collaborators with whom I had not previously worked, including eminent academics in the fields of reproductive anatomy and sexual selection at the University of Southern California, MIT and Mount Holyoke College, Massachusetts. The work conducted has been featured in the Guardian, the New Scientist and was extensively covered on BBC's Autumnwatch 2020. A match-funded PhD student held between MMU and a regional zoo is now pursuing several avenues of inquiry identified through this fellowship, and I will continue to seek funding to further progress my own research in this field. A recurrent theme identified in my fellowship (and to which I have also contributed) has been an extreme male-leaning bias in our understanding of comparative reproductive anatomy. Building upon this BBSRC Future Leader Fellowship, I hope to expand my research into female reproductive anatomy further, redressing this unbalance and exploring the potential drivers behind genital coevolution between the sexes. |
Exploitation Route | Flexible tools for quantifying organismal morphology, such as the alpha shapes method developed here, are highly desirable amongst users spanning the disciplines of ecology and evolutionary biology. More broadly, the comparison of morphological features is of interest to applied scientists from a diverse array of background, including archaeology, chemistry, computer science and medicine. The results of Brassey et al (2018) and Brassey et al (2020) highlight specific anatomical regions of the baculum upon which sexual selection may act more strongly. Future experimental evolution studies may aim to correlate reproductive success with the particular regions studied in this fellowship. |
Sectors | Digital/Communication/Information Technologies (including Software),Environment,Healthcare,Culture, Heritage, Museums and Collections |
Description | Thus far this research has primarily been consumed by academic peers. However, it has also been used in television media, public lectures and museum events at Manchester Museum and beyond to generate interest in biomechanics and anatomy, and to demonstrate the application of computational and engineering techniques to biological problems, both for public and school audiences. In addition, our research has contributed to a growing awareness of reproductive anatomy, and has encouraged discussion of genital form, function and health through well-received podcasts, blogposts, talks, the Conversation article and our active twitter presence. Through conversations with zoological and museum institutes, our research is also raising the profile of modern museum collections, and highlighting the value of active collecting of vertebrate specimens. In particular, our findings have reinforced the importance of zoo cadavers to the field of comparative anatomy and biomechanics, underlining the need for zoological institutes, museums and academic partners to collaborate in order to maximise the impact of such valuable material, both for discovery-led science and to provide insights into captive animal husbandry and welfare. |
First Year Of Impact | 2016 |
Sector | Culture, Heritage, Museums and Collections |
Impact Types | Cultural,Societal |
Description | Covid Recovery Fund |
Amount | £5,000 (GBP) |
Organisation | Manchester Metropolitan University |
Sector | Academic/University |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 01/2022 |
End | 07/2022 |
Description | Match-funded PhD studentship |
Amount | £67,116 (GBP) |
Organisation | Manchester Metropolitan University |
Sector | Academic/University |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 01/2018 |
End | 01/2024 |
Title | Alpha shapes: quantifying biological shape complexity in the absence of discrete landmarks |
Description | Following recent advances in bioimaging, high-resolution 3D models of biological structures are now generated rapidly and at low-cost. Utilising such data to address evolutionary and ecological questions has led to an array of 3D morphological tools being developed. Often, methods to quantify shape complexity rely upon the presence of homologous landmarks across specimens to normalise for scale, rotation and position. Yet many biological structures lack obvious landmarks upon which to conduct such analysis. Here we devise the alpha-shapes approach to quantify 3D shape 'complexity' in biological structures lacking discrete homologous landmarks. We apply alpha-shapes to quantify shape complexity in the mammalian baculum, an example of a rapidly-evolving and morphologically disparate structure with which landmark-based techniques often struggle. Micro- computed-tomography (CT) scans of bacula were conducted. Bacula were binarised and converted into point clouds. Following application of a scaling factor to account for absolute differences in size, a suite of alpha-shapes was fitted to each specimen. An alpha shape is a sub-graph of the Delaunay triangulation of a given set of points, and can range in refinement from a very coarse mesh (approximating convex hulls) to a very fine fit. 'Optimal' alpha was defined as the degree of refinement necessary in order for alpha-shape volume to equal CT voxel volume, and was taken as a metric of overall shape 'complexity'. Our results show that alpha-shapes can be used to quantify interspecific variation in shape 'complexity' within biological structures of disparate geometry. A principal component analysis found bacula cluster in alpha-shape space according to family-level taxonomic affinities. The 'stepped' nature of alpha curves is informative with regards to the contribution of specific morphological features to overall shape 'complexity'. The alpha-shapes methodology can be used to calculate 'optimal' alpha refinement as a proxy for shape 'complexity' without identifying landmarks. The implementation of alpha-shapes is straightforward, and is automated to process large datasets quickly. Beyond genital shape and the field of sexual selection, we consider the alpha-shapes technique to hold considerable promise for novel applications across evolutionary, ecological and palaeoecological disciplines. |
Type Of Material | Physiological assessment or outcome measure |
Year Produced | 2018 |
Provided To Others? | Yes |
Impact | Method published in 2018 in BMC Evolutionary Biology article Used in this fellowship for 2020 Proceedings B article Method refined and benchmarked in SHREC'21 shape retrieval challenge, and resulting publication in 'Computing and Graphics' |
URL | https://figshare.com/articles/Alpha_shapes_MATLAB_code/5558557 |
Title | microCT database of mammalian genitalia |
Description | Comprises large collection of microCT data spanning broad taxonomic sample of mammalian genitalia. |
Type Of Material | Database/Collection of data |
Year Produced | 2017 |
Provided To Others? | Yes |
Impact | 3D prints from this dataset used in BBC Autumnwatch broadcast 2020 Several requests from colleagues for 3D models to use in anatomy/zoology undergraduate teaching from multiple HEI's in the UK |
Description | Co-evolution of cetacean genitalia |
Organisation | Mount Holyoke College |
Country | United States |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | Quantification of shape complexity using 3D metrics developed by C.Brassey as part of fellowship |
Collaborator Contribution | Specimen collection, dissection and 3D imaging |
Impact | Orbach et al. 2021 - Journal of Ecology and Evolution |
Start Year | 2018 |
Description | Ferret XROMM |
Organisation | University of Liverpool |
Department | Institute of Ageing and Chronic Disease |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | My research team are contributing microCT scan time, and conducting dissections. |
Collaborator Contribution | University of Nottingham are contributing ferret cadavers. Williamson Park Zoo are facilitating the use of their captive ferrets for copulation experiments. University of Liverpool are making available their biplanar x-ray facility. |
Impact | No outcomes yet. Collaboration began in January 2018. |
Start Year | 2018 |
Description | Ferret XROMM |
Organisation | University of Nottingham |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | My research team are contributing microCT scan time, and conducting dissections. |
Collaborator Contribution | University of Nottingham are contributing ferret cadavers. Williamson Park Zoo are facilitating the use of their captive ferrets for copulation experiments. University of Liverpool are making available their biplanar x-ray facility. |
Impact | No outcomes yet. Collaboration began in January 2018. |
Start Year | 2018 |
Description | Ferret XROMM |
Organisation | Williamson Park Zoo |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Charity/Non Profit |
PI Contribution | My research team are contributing microCT scan time, and conducting dissections. |
Collaborator Contribution | University of Nottingham are contributing ferret cadavers. Williamson Park Zoo are facilitating the use of their captive ferrets for copulation experiments. University of Liverpool are making available their biplanar x-ray facility. |
Impact | No outcomes yet. Collaboration began in January 2018. |
Start Year | 2018 |
Description | Mammalian genital anatomy |
Organisation | National Museums Scotland |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Public |
PI Contribution | I have provided the expertise and access to X-ray imaging facilities and software to permit novel 'virtual dissections' and anatomical descriptions of mammalian genitalia, never previously described before. I have also provided undergraduate project students from Manchester Metropolitan University to assist in data processing. |
Collaborator Contribution | Dr Andrew Kitchener (senior curator of mammals) and his staff at the National Museum of Scotland have so far provided a wealth of cadaveric material sourced internationally from wild and captive specimens . Beyond access to their equipment, the Manchester X-Ray Imaging Facility have provided me with additional training, free access to high performance computers and use of their software licences. |
Impact | This collaboration is multi-disciplinary, involving both museum curators and academics from the biological sciences. The X-ray imaging facility being used is also part of the Materials Science department of the University of Manchester, and is funded by EPSRC. Brassey et al (2018) - Proceedings B Brassey et al (2020) - Proceedings B |
Start Year | 2016 |
Description | Mammalian genital anatomy |
Organisation | University of Manchester |
Department | Manchester X-ray Imaging Facility |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | I have provided the expertise and access to X-ray imaging facilities and software to permit novel 'virtual dissections' and anatomical descriptions of mammalian genitalia, never previously described before. I have also provided undergraduate project students from Manchester Metropolitan University to assist in data processing. |
Collaborator Contribution | Dr Andrew Kitchener (senior curator of mammals) and his staff at the National Museum of Scotland have so far provided a wealth of cadaveric material sourced internationally from wild and captive specimens . Beyond access to their equipment, the Manchester X-Ray Imaging Facility have provided me with additional training, free access to high performance computers and use of their software licences. |
Impact | This collaboration is multi-disciplinary, involving both museum curators and academics from the biological sciences. The X-ray imaging facility being used is also part of the Materials Science department of the University of Manchester, and is funded by EPSRC. Brassey et al (2018) - Proceedings B Brassey et al (2020) - Proceedings B |
Start Year | 2016 |
Description | Ontogeny of trabeculae bone in the pinniped baculum as an indicator of loading behaviour |
Organisation | Memorial University of Newfoundland |
Country | Canada |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | Access to computer code, CT scanning facilities |
Collaborator Contribution | Access to pinniped skeletal specimens Expertise in pinniped biology |
Impact | Delayed by pandemic. Still in early stages of material transfer. |
Start Year | 2020 |
Description | Ontogeny of trabeculae bone in the pinniped baculum as an indicator of loading behaviour |
Organisation | University of Southern California |
Country | United States |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | Access to computer code, CT scanning facilities |
Collaborator Contribution | Access to pinniped skeletal specimens Expertise in pinniped biology |
Impact | Delayed by pandemic. Still in early stages of material transfer. |
Start Year | 2020 |
Description | Understanding the biomechanics and physiology of mating failure in endangered species |
Organisation | Royal Veterinary College (RVC) |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | We have begun a collaboration, hoping to develop a protocol for automated motion tracking and behaviour classification in mating carnivores using machine learning. Under captive mating schemes (e.g. Endangered Species Programmes), pairs are primarily selected on the basis of genetic compatibility. Yet, an estimated 80% of these recommended pairs fail to produce offspring across a number of taxa, including Carnivora. Mating failure has been attributed to 'pair incompatibility' and a lack of mate choice advanced as an explanation. Male motor performance during courtship has been suggested to play an important role in female assessment due to the associated high energetic cost, yet it remains unstudied in carnivore species. However, consistent with this hypothesis, male copulatory failure in this group has been attributed to a lack of mate choice (giant panda), the adoption of abnormal mounting postures (black-footed ferrets) and the performance of abnormal repetitive behaviours. Such alarming rates of mating failure jeopardise the success of conservation programmes, and raise welfare concerns for the animals kept within them. Yet there has been little attempt to determine what combination of mechanical, physiological and/or behavioural factors are required in order for species to mate successfully. For the first time, we propose the use of non-invasive machine learning techniques for automated mating behavioural analysis and the collection of remote physiological telemetry in Endangered Species Programmes. Specifically, I am contributing expertise in kinematic analysis, and in the application of machine learning techniques to the non-invasive markerless tracking of animal poses using DeepLabCut. |
Collaborator Contribution | Access to captive breeding programmes of mustelids (American mink), and expertise in animal behaviour and captive welfare. |
Impact | This collaboration is multi-disciplinary, in the sense of bringing together experts in animal welfare and behaviour, with those working in the field of biomechanics, kinematics and machine learning. |
Start Year | 2020 |
Description | BBSRC Research Featured on BBC Autumnwatch TV programme |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A broadcast e.g. TV/radio/film/podcast (other than news/press) |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | 10min segment on Autumnwatch on the mating strategies of UK grey seals vs harbour seals, including a comparison of genital anatomy and baculum size. CB liaised with producers to develop content and provided 3D prints of the bacula for the show. Michaela Strachan presents on-screen with the 3D prints. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2020 |
Description | Interview for national news |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Following a conference presentation, a journalist in the audience expressed an interest in writing a piece for the Guardian including my research. This was published online in January 2018, and received considerable interest via social media channels |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
URL | https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/jan/24/cloacae-sex-arms-and-penis-bones-the-tricky-art-of-f... |
Description | Manchester Museum Science Uncovered Event |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | Regional |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Stall at museum open evening themed around mammalian genitalia |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
Description | Palaeocast podcast interview |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A broadcast e.g. TV/radio/film/podcast (other than news/press) |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | 50 minute conversation on the function and evolution of the baculum for a popular science podcast. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
URL | http://www.palaeocast.com/episode-88-bacula/ |
Description | Talk at the University of the Third Age |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | Local |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Evening talk at Wilmslow library to audience of retirees as part of U3A |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
Description | The Conversation article coinciding with publication of paper |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | The Conversation article written to accompany publication of Proceedings B article on function of the mammal baculum. ~10k views for the original article, and 25k views on the article translated into other languages |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
URL | https://theconversation.com/penis-bones-an-evolutionary-puzzle-explained-using-innovative-3d-scannin... |