Metacognition and Mindreading: One system or two?
Lead Research Organisation:
University of Kent
Department Name: Sch of Psychology
Abstract
Intuitively, we are aware of our own thoughts in a way that is quite different to the way that we are aware of other people's thoughts; each of us is privileged in knowing only our own thoughts directly, whereas we have to *infer* others' thoughts on the basis of their overt behaviour. The ability to monitor one's own thoughts is termed "metacognition", whereas the ability to monitor others' thoughts is termed "mindreading". The intuitive view of metacognition described above has led some (so-called "two systems" theorists) to claim that distinct psychological mechanisms underpin metacognition and mindreading, and that metacognition is evolutionarily and developmentally prior to mindreading.
This claim is disputed by another group of ("one-system") theorists who argue that mindreading and metacognition actually rely on exactly the same core psychological mechanism (despite common intuition), and that metacognition actually emerged as a by-product of the evolutionary need to mind-read others. Two-systems theorists use two potentially powerful arguments to support their view. First, they argue that non-human primates are capable of performing well on tests of metacognition even though such primates show little evidence of mindreading ability. Second, they argue that humans with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show intact metacognitive ability despite impaired mindreading.
If these arguments are validated, then this would rule out the one-system view of the relation between mindreading and metacognition. However, one-system theorists have challenged these arguments, claiming that (a) the supposedly metacognitive tasks that non-human primates perform well on do not, in fact, require metacognitive awareness, and (b) people with ASD *do* show metacognitive impairments. There is, however, very little empirical research to decide between these arguments and counter-arguments. Therefore, the aim of our proposed research is to test these theories in a systematic fashion by employing multiple kinds of metacognitive task across two sets of experiments.
In the first set of experiments, we will manipulate the demands of metacognitive tasks in systematic ways to establish whether the kinds of task used to test metacognition in non-human primates really do require awareness of one's own thoughts. Neurotypical adults will take part in this set of studies.
In the second set of experiments, we will assess metacognitive monitoring among adults with ASD and neurotypical adults who are closely similar to participants with ASD in terms of age and general intelligence. We will use a variety of tasks, including those kinds that are used to test metacognition in non-human primates.
Together, these experiments will allow us to decide between the competing theories of the relation between metacognition and mindreading. In addition to supporting theory development, our proposed research will be important in understanding the nature of cognitive functioning in people with ASD. It is striking how little research there is into metacognition in ASD, given that many hundreds of studies that have explored mindreading in this disorder. Indeed, difficulties with such *self*-awareness might explain aspects of the behavioural features of ASD that difficulties with mindreading do not so easily explain (e.g., behavioural inflexibility). Thus, we hope that our proposed research will, in the end, have practical benefits for people with ASD, by informing teaching practices and intervention efforts designed to enhance learning and cognitive-behavioural functioning among people with this disorder.
This claim is disputed by another group of ("one-system") theorists who argue that mindreading and metacognition actually rely on exactly the same core psychological mechanism (despite common intuition), and that metacognition actually emerged as a by-product of the evolutionary need to mind-read others. Two-systems theorists use two potentially powerful arguments to support their view. First, they argue that non-human primates are capable of performing well on tests of metacognition even though such primates show little evidence of mindreading ability. Second, they argue that humans with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show intact metacognitive ability despite impaired mindreading.
If these arguments are validated, then this would rule out the one-system view of the relation between mindreading and metacognition. However, one-system theorists have challenged these arguments, claiming that (a) the supposedly metacognitive tasks that non-human primates perform well on do not, in fact, require metacognitive awareness, and (b) people with ASD *do* show metacognitive impairments. There is, however, very little empirical research to decide between these arguments and counter-arguments. Therefore, the aim of our proposed research is to test these theories in a systematic fashion by employing multiple kinds of metacognitive task across two sets of experiments.
In the first set of experiments, we will manipulate the demands of metacognitive tasks in systematic ways to establish whether the kinds of task used to test metacognition in non-human primates really do require awareness of one's own thoughts. Neurotypical adults will take part in this set of studies.
In the second set of experiments, we will assess metacognitive monitoring among adults with ASD and neurotypical adults who are closely similar to participants with ASD in terms of age and general intelligence. We will use a variety of tasks, including those kinds that are used to test metacognition in non-human primates.
Together, these experiments will allow us to decide between the competing theories of the relation between metacognition and mindreading. In addition to supporting theory development, our proposed research will be important in understanding the nature of cognitive functioning in people with ASD. It is striking how little research there is into metacognition in ASD, given that many hundreds of studies that have explored mindreading in this disorder. Indeed, difficulties with such *self*-awareness might explain aspects of the behavioural features of ASD that difficulties with mindreading do not so easily explain (e.g., behavioural inflexibility). Thus, we hope that our proposed research will, in the end, have practical benefits for people with ASD, by informing teaching practices and intervention efforts designed to enhance learning and cognitive-behavioural functioning among people with this disorder.
Planned Impact
WHO WILL BENEFIT FROM THE RESEARCH AND HOW WILL THEY BENEFIT?
In addition to benefiting academics, we believe the research has the potential to offer translational benefits. For example, metacognitive monitoring ability is a significant predictor of educational achievement, *independent of IQ*. If metacognition *is* impaired in ASD, then the potential benefit of the research for educational techniques is high; we know there are established techniques for improving metacognitive skills, and that such training enhances academic attainment among other groups of under-achievers. Similar techniques could be employed among individuals with ASD. If metacognition is *not* impaired in ASD, then this would suggest that educators should utilise this ability in classrooms more frequently than many do. Indeed, there are established techniques for enhancing metacognition even among individuals who are not clinically impaired in this respect. Indeed, the Irish government has been influenced by research into the impact on academic outcomes of metacognitive training. As a result, training teachers to teach metacognitive skills is now a component of the "Equality of Challenge" initiative that the government has introduced to enhance educational attainment among children with special educational needs (SESS, 2009). We hope that our research might contribute to a similar government-led initiative in UK schools. To achieve this impact, we will relay our findings to colleagues in the UK Government's Department for Education and the National Autistic Society. This will ensure that our findings are disseminated to the relevant groups at a national level, which will maximize the impact of the research. According to research by the National Autistic Society, only around 12% of intellectually able individuals with ASD secure full-time employment post-education. Although it would be implausible to suggest that this was solely because of educational under-achievement, we do suspect that such impairments contribute to difficulty in finding/retaining employment. Thus, in the longer term, the research has the potential to improve life chances among individuals with ASD, and to enhance occupational functioning and employment prospects for people with this disorder, with the potential for resultant economic benefit.
WHAT WILL BE DONE TO ENSURE THEY BENEFIT FROM THE RESEARCH?
We will ensure successful knowledge-transfer to all user groups by:
1. Publishing the results of the study in high-impact academic journals (with "gold" open-access options) that have a wide
readership
2. Organising a workshop on metacognition in ASD at the National Forum for Neuroscience in Special Education
3. Presenting to parent and teacher groups at schools/colleges for people with ASD
4. Writing an article for publication in "Communication", the National Autistic Society's members' magazine
5. Publishing an article in the Clinical Psychology Forum of the British Psychological Society
6. Disseminating our results to Special Educational Needs Co-ordinators via our contacts at the Department of Education
TRACK RECORD
Over the past five years (2009-2014), the applicants have published 39 peer-reviewed articles in high-impact (top 10%) journals between them, including in the prestigious Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Psychological Bulletin, and Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. This indicates our capacity to disseminate the results of the proposed project in high-impact journals. In the past three years, Dr Williams has organised two symposia on ASD, aimed at diverse audiences including academics and non-academics. The applicants have a consistent track record of maintaining close contact with schools, colleges, and support groups, and providing copies of papers to participants and other relevant parties. This confirms the capacity of the applicants to deliver impact via dissemination to non-academic users and to host the proposed workshops
In addition to benefiting academics, we believe the research has the potential to offer translational benefits. For example, metacognitive monitoring ability is a significant predictor of educational achievement, *independent of IQ*. If metacognition *is* impaired in ASD, then the potential benefit of the research for educational techniques is high; we know there are established techniques for improving metacognitive skills, and that such training enhances academic attainment among other groups of under-achievers. Similar techniques could be employed among individuals with ASD. If metacognition is *not* impaired in ASD, then this would suggest that educators should utilise this ability in classrooms more frequently than many do. Indeed, there are established techniques for enhancing metacognition even among individuals who are not clinically impaired in this respect. Indeed, the Irish government has been influenced by research into the impact on academic outcomes of metacognitive training. As a result, training teachers to teach metacognitive skills is now a component of the "Equality of Challenge" initiative that the government has introduced to enhance educational attainment among children with special educational needs (SESS, 2009). We hope that our research might contribute to a similar government-led initiative in UK schools. To achieve this impact, we will relay our findings to colleagues in the UK Government's Department for Education and the National Autistic Society. This will ensure that our findings are disseminated to the relevant groups at a national level, which will maximize the impact of the research. According to research by the National Autistic Society, only around 12% of intellectually able individuals with ASD secure full-time employment post-education. Although it would be implausible to suggest that this was solely because of educational under-achievement, we do suspect that such impairments contribute to difficulty in finding/retaining employment. Thus, in the longer term, the research has the potential to improve life chances among individuals with ASD, and to enhance occupational functioning and employment prospects for people with this disorder, with the potential for resultant economic benefit.
WHAT WILL BE DONE TO ENSURE THEY BENEFIT FROM THE RESEARCH?
We will ensure successful knowledge-transfer to all user groups by:
1. Publishing the results of the study in high-impact academic journals (with "gold" open-access options) that have a wide
readership
2. Organising a workshop on metacognition in ASD at the National Forum for Neuroscience in Special Education
3. Presenting to parent and teacher groups at schools/colleges for people with ASD
4. Writing an article for publication in "Communication", the National Autistic Society's members' magazine
5. Publishing an article in the Clinical Psychology Forum of the British Psychological Society
6. Disseminating our results to Special Educational Needs Co-ordinators via our contacts at the Department of Education
TRACK RECORD
Over the past five years (2009-2014), the applicants have published 39 peer-reviewed articles in high-impact (top 10%) journals between them, including in the prestigious Behavioral and Brain Sciences, Psychological Bulletin, and Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. This indicates our capacity to disseminate the results of the proposed project in high-impact journals. In the past three years, Dr Williams has organised two symposia on ASD, aimed at diverse audiences including academics and non-academics. The applicants have a consistent track record of maintaining close contact with schools, colleges, and support groups, and providing copies of papers to participants and other relevant parties. This confirms the capacity of the applicants to deliver impact via dissemination to non-academic users and to host the proposed workshops
Organisations
Publications
Carruthers P
(2022)
Model-free metacognition.
in Cognition
Carruthers P
(2019)
Comparative metacognition
in Animal Behavior and Cognition
Carruthers P
(2016)
Are epistemic emotions metacognitive?
in Philosophical Psychology
Lind SE
(2020)
The self-reference effect on memory is not diminished in autism: Three studies of incidental and explicit self-referential recognition memory in autistic and neurotypical adults and adolescents.
in Journal of abnormal psychology
Lind, Sophie E. And Williams, David M. And Grainger, Catherine And Landsiedel, J
Lind, Sophie E. and Williams, David M. and Grainger, Catherine and Landsiedel, Julia
Nicholson T
(2021)
Linking metacognition and mindreading: Evidence from autism and dual-task investigations.
in Journal of experimental psychology. General
Nicholson T
(2019)
Relationships between implicit and explicit uncertainty monitoring and mindreading: Evidence from autism spectrum disorder.
in Consciousness and cognition
Nicholson T
(2019)
Interoception is Impaired in Children, But Not Adults, with Autism Spectrum Disorder.
in Journal of autism and developmental disorders
Nicholson TM
(2018)
Interoceptive impairments do not lie at the heart of autism or alexithymia.
in Journal of abnormal psychology
Peter Carruthers
(2020)
The Questioning Child: Insights from psychology and education.
| Description | The research has now been completed and the remaining findings are being written up for publication. Our knowledge dissemination strategy is ongoing and will continue during the next year and beyond. We anticipate publication of at least four further articles and engagement in multiple dissemination activities. Currently, the published papers detail empirical findings from the project, and one theoretical paper has been published. All articles are published gold open-access to maximize the impact of the findings on academic and non-academic beneficiaries: 1. Williams, D., Bergstr?m, Z., & Grainger, C. (2018). Metacognitive monitoring and the hypercorrection effect in autism and the general population: Relation to autism(-like) traits and mindreading. Autism: International Journal of Research and Practice, 22, 259-270. (5-year impact factor: 4.11; Ranked 10/70 in Developmental Psychology; top 14%) This relates to metacognitive monitoring in children with autism. In two experiments, participants answered general knowledge questions and provided confidence judgements about how likely each answer was to be correct, after which feedback was given. Finally, participants were retested on all questions initially answered incorrectly. Usually, neurotypical people who are very confident that they know the answer to a question will be correct, whereas low confidence about knowing the answer usually results in an incorrect answer being given. This ability to introspect one's own states of knowledge is termed "metacognition". Interestingly, when people feel very confident that they know the answer, but the answer turns out to be wrong (a high-confidence error), they are much less likely to make the same mistake again than if they were not at all confident that their answer would be correct (a low-confidence error). This is termed a "hypercorrection effect". In Experiment 1, we found that metacognition (accuracy of confidence judgements), but not the hypercorrection effect, was related to neurotypical people's ability to understand other people's states of mind ("mindreading"). Importantly, mindreading is well-known to be impaired in autism spectrum disorder. In Experiment 2, we found that metacognition, but not the hypercorrection effect, was diminished in children with ASD (relative to neurotypical children). In other words, children with ASD found it more difficult than neurotypical children (of equivalent age and intelligence) to distinguish when they did know an answer from when they did not know. However, they were just as likely as neurotypical children to show the hypercorrection effect. 2. Nicholson, T., Williams, D. M., Grainger, C., Lind, S. E., & Carruthers, P. (2019). Relationships between implicit and explicit uncertainty monitoring and mindreading: Evidence from autism spectrum disorder. Consciousness and Cognition, 70, 11-24. (5-year impact factor = 2.52; Ranked 36/85 in Experimental Psychology; top 42%) This paper reports some of the major themes of the grant by measuring implicit and explicit forms of metacognition, and testing how they relate to mindreading performance in a group of ASD and Neurotypical participants. In two experiments the same participants took part in an implicit (non-verbal) and explicit (verbal) metacognition task while also completing some common mindreading tasks. In these experiments participants had to make a visual discrimination judgement (e.g. which of two lines is longest or which of two boxes contains most dots), while also having the option to skip the judgment (e.g. implicit task) or having to say if they were confident or not (explicit). Experiment 1 showed no difference between ASD and NT performance in relation to implicit metacognition. Experiment 2 in contrast found that ASD showed significantly diminished performance compared to neurotypicals at matching their confidence to performance, providing evidence for an explicit metacognitive impairment. Moreover, mindreading performance predicted performance in the explicit metacognitive task, but not the implicit metacognitive task. The results provide evidence that ASD is associated with difficulties in explicit, but not implicit, metacognition. These findings are directly relevant to the main theme of the grant in showing that explicit, but not implicit, metacognition is related to mindreading. This is important evidence which challenges theories suggesting the two abilities are distinct, and supporting theories arguing for an overlap between the abilities. 3. Carruthers, P. (2017) Are epistemic emotions metacognitive? Philosophical Psychology, 30, 58-78. (5-year impact factor = 1.30; Ranked 77/100 in Multidisciplinary Psychology; top 77%) This paper makes an important contribution to the literature by providing a conceptual analysis of so-called epistemic emotions. Experience of these emotions has been claimed by some to demonstrate metacognitive ability, but our paper argues that this inference is likely to be false. 4. Nicholson, T., Williams, D.M., Grainger, C., Christensen, J., Calvo-Merino, B., & Gaigg, S. (2018). Interoceptive impairments do not lie at the heart of autism or alexithymia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 127, 612-622. (5-year impact factor = 5.72; Ranked 11/121 in Clinical Psychology; top 9%) This paper reports two large-scale studies exploring perception of bodily signals ("interoception") in ASD (and in relation to ASD traits in the general population). This is related to the central questions to be addressed by the grant research. Participants completed a heartbeat monitoring task, which required them to count the number of times their heart beat in a specific period without touching their body. That is, it required participants to "introspect" their heartrate. Experiment 1 yielded no evidence to suggest that ASD traits were associated with interoceptive abilities. Similarly, Experiment 2 provided no evidence for interoceptive impairments in autistic adults. The observations pose a significant challenge to notions that interoceptive impairments constitute a core feature of either ASD, at least as far as the direct perception of interoceptive signals is concerned. Most importantly, they imply that the metacognitive impairments we have observed in ASD cannot be because people with this disorder have diminished bodily signals. Rather, the results suggest that difficulties with metacognition in ASD are because people with ASD have difficulty making metacognitive interpretations of those signals. This is in keeping with one of the key theoretical positions tested by the grant research 5. Williams, D., Nicholson, T., Grainger, C., Lind, S., & Carruthers, P. (2018). Can you spot a liar? Deception, mindreading, and the case of autism spectrum disorder. Autism Research, 11, 1129-1137. (5-year impact factor = 4.31; Ranked 5/51 in Behavioural Sciences; top 9%) A core aim of the grant research is to investigate the relation between metacognition and mindreading. When we first designed the study, we intended to use a lie detection task as one of our mindreading measures. In this task, participants have to judge whether people in videos are telling the truth or lying. However, it became clear from our initial results that the ability to judge deception was not related to performance other, well-established measures of mindreading. It was, however, associated with the number of ASD traits manifested by people from the general population (the more ASD traits, the poorer the lie detection performance). Thus, we discontinued use of the task as a measure of mindreading, but carried on using the task as a measure of social ability in its own right, given the potential impact of the initial findings. Detection of deception is of fundamental importance for everyday social life. People with (ASD), might be at risk of manipulation because of lie detection difficulties. In the full study, we found that lie detection ability was related to how many ASD traits neurotypical people manifested and also was significantly diminished among adults with a full diagnosis of ASD. Although these results do not address the central questions to be addressed the grant research, they address related questions and have the potential to have high impact. In particular, they suggest that people with ASD (or ASD traits) may be particularly vulnerable to manipulation and may benefit from lie detection training. 6. Williams, D., Nicholson, T., & Grainger, C. (2018). The self-reference effect on perception: Undiminished in adults with autism and no relation to autism traits. Autism Research, 11, 331-341. (5-year impact factor = 4.31; Ranked 5/51 in Behavioural Sciences; top 9%) Memory for (and perception of) information about the self is superior to memory for (and perception of) other kinds of information. This self-reference effect (SRE) in memory appears diminished in ASD and related to the number of ASD traits manifested by neurotypical individuals (fewer traits = larger SRE). Here, we reported the first experiments exploring the relation between ASD and the SRE in perception. Using a "Shapes" Task (Sui et al., 2012), participants learned to associate three different shapes (triangle, circle, square) with three different labels representing self, a familiar other, or an unfamiliar other (e.g., "you", "mother", "stranger"). Participants then completed trials during which they were presented with one shape and one label for 100ms, and made judgements about whether the shape and label were a match. In Experiment 1, neurotypical participants (n=124) showed the expected SRE, detecting self-related matches more reliably and quickly than matches involving familiar or unfamiliar other. Most important, number of ASD traits was unrelated to the size of the SRE for either accuracy or reaction time. In Experiment 2, there were no differences between 22 adults with ASD and 21 matched comparison adults in performance on the Shapes Task. Despite showing large and significant mindreading impairments, participants with ASD showed the typical SRE and there were no associations with ASD traits in either group. These findings challenge theories about self-representation in ASD, as discussed in the paper. Most importantly, they further confirm that the metacognitive deficits we observe are not driven by basic problems with self-perception in ASD. It was important to show that metacognitive deficits in ASD were not driven by lower-level, domain-general, difficulties with self-awareness. Hence, this paper (as well as one currently in prep. paper) was pivotal to show that the hypotheses made in the grant application were truly supported by the data. |
| Exploitation Route | We know that metacognition contributes significantly to educational achievement (independent of intelligence) among neurotypical children, and that children with ASD systematically under-achieve in education. Supporting metacognition in ASD may enhance learning outcomes among people with this disorder. We are currently working with teachers and practitioners to make them aware that metacognition is likely to be impaired in many children with autism and to provide them with strategies to support this ability within the classroom. |
| Sectors | Education,Healthcare |
| Description | A poster presentation at the International Society for Autism Research general meeting |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | Poster presented on "Implicit and explicit metacognition in ASD", engaged with a number of other academics and professional practitioners. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
| URL | https://insar.confex.com/insar/2018/webprogram/start.html |
| Description | A poster presentation at the International Society for Autism Research general meeting |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | Poster presented on "The self-reference effect on perception: undiminished in ASD and no relation to ASD traits", engaged with a number of other academics and professional practitioners. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
| URL | https://insar.confex.com/insar/2018/webprogram/start.html |
| Description | A poster presentation at the International Society for Autism Research general meeting |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | Poster presented on "Can you spot a Liar? Lie detection and mindreading in adults with autism spectrum disorder", engaged with a number of other academics and professional practitioners. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
| URL | https://insar.confex.com/insar/2018/webprogram/start.html |
| Description | A talk at International Society for Autism Research general meeting |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | Talk entitled 'Interoceptive impairments do not lie at the heart of Autism' was given to a mixed audience of academic, professional and general public. The talk led to a number of questions about the research from other researchers in the field. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
| URL | https://insar.confex.com/insar/2018/webprogram/Session4086.html |
| Description | Half-day workshop for educators |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Regional |
| Primary Audience | Professional Practitioners |
| Results and Impact | I organised a half-day workshop for 35 teachers, nursery workers, and special educational needs coordinators on the topic of learning in ASD. I presented up-to-date theories of and research into ASD, focussing on the grant research on metacognition (and its influence on learning). One of my PhD students (a qualified teacher) then led a practical session on how to apply this knowledge in the classroom. Attendees were invited to give feedback, of which 22 did so. All 22 reported that the session was very interesting and useful, and that the information was well delivered and the speakers were engaging. Ninteen (86% of responders) reported that they would change their practice as a consequence of the workshop. For example, they reported they would: "be more understanding/patient and will try to identify the reason for behaviour", "apply some of the techniques/strategies", "support their students to be independent learners", and "actively seek further staff training". As a result of the success of this workshop, a series of further workshops will be organised. Majority of attendees thought the session was very interesting and useful; that the information was well delivered and the speakers were engaging. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2017 |
| Description | Invited talk - UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | National |
| Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
| Results and Impact | ICN seminar series attracts scholars, students, and members of the general public. Attendance was the second highest of the year (Sarah White, personal communication November 2018), indicating interest in the topic and providing opportunity to disseminate findings widely. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
| URL | https://www.ucl.ac.uk/icn/events/2018/nov/icn-seminar-david-williams |
| Description | Talk at Meeting of Minds Conference (Cophenhagen |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Professional Practitioners |
| Results and Impact | I (project PI) was invited to organise a symposium on self-awareness in ASD. Speakers were leading experts on the topic (Geoff Bird, Laura Crane, Mark Brosnan) and I presented the latest grant data. The audience consisted of members of ASD related Charities (including Princess Marie of Denmark, patron of Autism Denmark), people with ASD, medical/health professionals who work with/care for people with ASD, family members of people with ASD, and academics. Audience participation was high and participants reported that the session helped them to understand better the way that people with ASD think and learn. A special issue of Scandinavian Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychology and Psychiatry is planned, and I will provide an open-access article aimed at a mixture of academics and professionals who work with people with ASD. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2017 |
| URL | http://meetingofminds.dk/ |