Digital Conservation and Reconstruction of 'Fossilized Behaviour': the evolution of the human foot as revealed by ancient footprint trails
Lead Research Organisation:
University of Liverpool
Department Name: Biomedical Sciences
Abstract
Fossil footbones are rarely found associated with identifiable skeletons, and are often fragmentary; and when we do find a partial foot of one of our ancient ancestors it has usually been badly chewed. In addition such fossil rarely give definite indications of the way our early ancestors walked, as they act through a nested series of complicated soft tissues, from ligaments, out to the skin, and therefore the bones interact only remotely with the ground on which we walk. On the other hand, the footprints and trackways which were left when our distant ancestors walked across soft ground are the closest we can come to 'fossilized behaviour', as they are direct records of the forces we apply to the ground to balance ourselves and propel our walking. They are therefore potentially excellent evidence of the evolution of human walking. However, until recently we have lacked the tools with which to unlock their scientific potential. For example, the functional significance of the famous Laetoli footprints made some 3.75 million years ago by 'Lucy' and her relatives has been argued about for over 30 years, one scientist contradicting another, on the basis of features of individual prints - and in one case mistaking the footprint of a hare which walked across the human ancestor's footprints as the print of its big toe. We need methods which will tell us what are the common features of fossil trackways; identifying their 'central tendency' so that we can eliminate bias. This isn't easy, since footprints, being made by soft tissue, have no easily recognisable landmark points. One of the two groups involved in this project work on the mechanics of walking, using computer-simulation techniques, and engaging in some 'lateral thinking', found that methods used to analyze the distribution of chemical patterns in the brain are ideal for comparing footprints. The other group are specialists in finding and excavating fossil footprints, and recently discovered an exciting new set of prints in Kenya, about half the age of the Laetoli prints and made by the first members of our own 'genus': Homo. They used advanced laser-scanning techniques to record the prints in three-dimensional detail, as they had previously done for those at Laetoli. It's very likely that in the next three years they will find even more new footprint trails. Human walking works like a metronome, saving energy as the body swings forward over the foot which contacts the ground, which can then be used to power the next stride. But because of our tall, thin build, our walking is unstable from side to side, and our hip muscles need to work to counter our tendency to fall over sideways when one leg takes over support from the other. Short, squatter animals like penguins are more stable from side to side, and can actually save pendulum-energy sideways on, by their 'waddling' gait. Distant human ancestors like Lucy had a similar squat and stable build - did they save energy the same way? It is likely that the footprints at Laetoli may contain the answer. Comparing them with the new footprints of early Homo should tell us a lot about how Lucy's flexible foot changed into a stiffer one which could push-off hard enough to let us walk or run long distances nearly effortlessly. To do so, we need not only to make sophisticated computer models of walking and footprint formation, which can recreate balance and energy-saving mechanisms in these early human ancestors, and relate them to foot forces and footprint form, but to do physical experiments in soft mud and ash which will tie these models into the real world. But we must also look for more footprints, which can fill in some of the details of the changes we are studying. Thus, working together, we have the skills, tools and evidence to interpret the evolution of walking at a crucial time period, the transition between an early biped that probably spent some time in the trees, and a striding long-distance walker.
People |
ORCID iD |
Robin Crompton (Principal Investigator) |
Publications
Altamura F
(2018)
Archaeology and ichnology at Gombore II-2, Melka Kunture, Ethiopia: everyday life of a mixed-age hominin group 700,000 years ago.
in Scientific reports
Bates KT
(2013)
The evolution of compliance in the human lateral mid-foot.
in Proceedings. Biological sciences
Bates KT
(2013)
Does footprint depth correlate with foot motion and pressure?
in Journal of the Royal Society, Interface
Belvedere M
(2018)
Stat-tracks and mediotypes: powerful tools for modern ichnology based on 3D models
in PeerJ
Bennett M
(2014)
Tracks made by swimming Hippopotami: An example from Koobi Fora (Turkana Basin, Kenya)
in Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
Bennett M
(2016)
Footprints and human evolution: Homeostasis in foot function?
in Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
Bennett M
(2019)
Soft-sediment deformation below mammoth tracks at White Sands National Monument (New Mexico) with implications for biomechanical inferences from tracks
in Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
Bennett M
(2020)
Walking in mud: Remarkable Pleistocene human trackways from White Sands National Park (New Mexico)
in Quaternary Science Reviews
Bennett M
(2014)
Exceptional preservation of children's footprints from a Holocene footprint site in Namibia
in Journal of African Earth Sciences
Bennett MR
(2016)
Laetoli's lost tracks: 3D generated mean shape and missing footprints.
in Scientific reports
Bennett MR
(2021)
Evidence of humans in North America during the Last Glacial Maximum.
in Science (New York, N.Y.)
Bustos D
(2018)
Footprints preserve terminal Pleistocene hunt? Human-sloth interactions in North America
in Science Advances
Caravaggi P
(2010)
Dynamics of longitudinal arch support in relation to walking speed: contribution of the plantar aponeurosis
in Journal of Anatomy
Caravaggi P
(2010)
Kinematic correlates of walking cadence in the foot.
in Journal of biomechanics
Crompton R
(2011)
Human-like external function of the foot, and fully upright gait, confirmed in the 3.66 million year old Laetoli hominin footprints by topographic statistics, experimental footprint-formation and computer simulation
in Journal of The Royal Society Interface
Crompton RH
(2010)
Arboreality, terrestriality and bipedalism.
in Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences
Falkingham PL
(2011)
The 'Goldilocks' effect: preservation bias in vertebrate track assemblages.
in Journal of the Royal Society, Interface
McClymont J
(2016)
The nature of functional variability in plantar pressure during a range of controlled walking speeds.
in Royal Society open science
McClymont J
(2021)
Intra-subject sample size effects in plantar pressure analyses.
in PeerJ
Morse SA
(2013)
Holocene footprints in Namibia: the influence of substrate on footprint variability.
in American journal of physical anthropology
Myatt JP
(2011)
Hindlimb muscle architecture in non-human great apes and a comparison of methods for analysing inter-species variation.
in Journal of anatomy
Myatt JP
(2011)
A new method for recording complex positional behaviours and habitat interactions in primates.
in Folia primatologica; international journal of primatology
Oliveira FP
(2010)
Registration of pedobarographic image data in the frequency domain.
in Computer methods in biomechanics and biomedical engineering
Panagiotopoulou O
(2012)
Statistical parametric mapping of the regional distribution and ontogenetic scaling of foot pressures during walking in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus).
in The Journal of experimental biology
Pataky TC
(2011)
Spatiotemporal volumetric analysis of dynamic plantar pressure data.
in Medicine and science in sports and exercise
Pataky TC
(2012)
Gait recognition: highly unique dynamic plantar pressure patterns among 104 individuals.
in Journal of the Royal Society, Interface
Pataky TC
(2012)
Spatial resolution in plantar pressure measurement revisited.
in Journal of biomechanics
Pataky TC
(2011)
An anatomically unbiased foot template for inter-subject plantar pressure evaluation.
in Gait & posture
Pataky TC
(2012)
One-dimensional statistical parametric mapping in Python.
in Computer methods in biomechanics and biomedical engineering
Pataky TC
(2010)
Generalized n-dimensional biomechanical field analysis using statistical parametric mapping.
in Journal of biomechanics
Sellers W
(2010)
Evolutionary Robotic Approaches in Primate Gait Analysis
in International Journal of Primatology
Urban T
(2018)
Use of magnetometry for detecting and documenting multi-species Pleistocene megafauna tracks at White Sands National Monument, New Mexico, U.S.A
in Quaternary Science Reviews
Urban TM
(2019)
3-D radar imaging unlocks the untapped behavioral and biomechanical archive of Pleistocene ghost tracks.
in Scientific reports
Wiseman ALA
(2020)
The morphological affinity of the Early Pleistocene footprints from Happisburgh, England, with other footprints of Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene age.
in Journal of human evolution
Description | Our findings on the unexpectedly high compliance of the normal human foot challenge accepted paradigms of the human foot as an unique, stiff organ and are therefore directly relevant to our understanding of what a normal, healthy foot is |
Sectors | Communities and Social Services/Policy,Healthcare,Leisure Activities, including Sports, Recreation and Tourism,Pharmaceuticals and Medical Biotechnology,Security and Diplomacy |
Description | Work covered at length on BBC4 Dissected the Incredible Human Foot |
Sector | Culture, Heritage, Museums and Collections |
Impact Types | Cultural |
Description | The role of foot pressure in directional control and turning |
Amount | £11,550 (GBP) |
Organisation | The Royal Society |
Sector | Charity/Non Profit |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 12/2011 |
End | 12/2013 |
Description | The role of foot pressure in directional control and turning |
Amount | £11,550 (GBP) |
Organisation | The Royal Society |
Sector | Charity/Non Profit |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 12/2011 |
End | 12/2013 |
Description | Collaboration on foot pressure with Dr. Tood Pataky, Shinshu University Japan |
Organisation | Shinshu University |
Country | Japan |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | This collaboration extends our previous joint work on foot pressure under the grant using our patented software pSPM and continues to produce a flow of publications both by grant particpants and others, some of which I have included. The collaboration has received funding from the Royal Society under the International Exchange scheme |
Start Year | 2011 |
Title | IMAGE PROCESSING |
Description | A method of processing a pressure image, the method comprising: receiving a plurality of first continuous pressure images; processing each of said first continuous pressure images to generate a respective second continuous pressure image; and generating a continuous statistical image representing a characteristic of the first pressure images by processing said second continuous pressure images. |
IP Reference | WO2009081113 |
Protection | Patent granted |
Year Protection Granted | 2009 |
Licensed | No |
Impact | Application of software to research on gait stability in the healthy elderly |
Description | Foresnsic application of human ichnology |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | Yes |
Primary Audience | |
Results and Impact | presentation to Sussex police on applications of footprint analysis to foresnsics |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2012 |
Description | Prehistoric Autopsy |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | Yes |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | The research under this grant was covered extensively in the episode concerning 'Lucy' (AL 288-1) in the BBC2 series Prehistoric Autopsy where PI Crompton was interviewed and demonstrated footprint analysis techniques the above date is the broadcast date. I was involved in two days of filming in Glasgow as well as many hours of discussions with the producers |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2012 |
Description | The Origins and Age of Human Bipedal Walking |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | Yes |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Pendle Cafe Scientifique |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2012 |
Description | Tracking our ancestors |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | article in NERC Planet Earth |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2010 |
Description | Walking with our ancestors |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | Yes |
Primary Audience | Schools |
Results and Impact | Bournemouth Open Student Lecture, Sept 2012 |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2012 |
Description | Walking with our ancestors, BU Festival of Learning |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an open day or visit at my research institution |
Part Of Official Scheme? | Yes |
Primary Audience | Schools |
Results and Impact | public presentation |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2012 |
Description | Walking with our ancestors, Salisbury Science cafe |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A formal working group, expert panel or dialogue |
Part Of Official Scheme? | Yes |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | science cafe presentation |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2012 |