Apologies for Historical Wrongs: When, How, Why?
Lead Research Organisation:
University of Surrey
Department Name: School of Law
Abstract
This project examines the functions and forms of apologies in dispute settlement and reconciliation processes concerning conflicts and traumas of both national and international scale. It challenges the notion of apologies for wrongdoing as providing a terminus to a linear dispute settlement process. It analyses case studies in which the apology, present and absent, forms a focal point in campaigns for recognition, remembrance and/or reconciliation. In connecting its inquiry to anniversaries of apologies in the twenty-first century, it contextualises its critique of linear temporality within the internal logics of apologies that propose a clear beginning and end date for the conflict.
The central aim of the project is to harvest data on official apologies and campaigns for official apologies in the 21st century in relation to their functions (why they are made) and modes (when and how). Utilising participant observation and focus group methodologies in addition to a critical review of secondary literature, the project will provide an update and a new critical assessment of the functions and modes of apologies in light of the experiences of the past fourteen years. In the process, its focus upon the role of temporality will probe the rationales (political, legal and sociological) for official apologies for historical wrongs in the contemporary zeitgeist.
The project poses the following research questions:
1. What are the forms of official apologies in the twenty-first century?
a. When and how are apologies made? For example, by what process (political, legal, diplomatic, social) are apologies mandated, by whom are they issued and to whom are they addressed?
b. What forms of language do apologies take? Are they connected to reparations or other 'material' redress or stand alone as 'moral' redress?
2. What are the functions of official apologies in the twenty-first century?
a. Why are they made? What are their ostensible purposes (remedy, reconciliation, commemoration, etc.)?
b. How are the apologies received by the addressees? How are they received by those not addressed who felt that they should have been addressed? Are there generational trends or differences in their reception?
As indicated in the project title, the project will examine apologies and campaigns for apologies in the twenty-first century (1 January 2001). Not only have apologies become more frequent in recent years but a number of milestones are approaching in relation to campaigns for recognition, apologies and reparation which provide the impetus for this project. Examples of apologies and campaigns in the twenty-first century include: the International Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Slavery and of the Transatlantic Slave Trade on 25 March 2014, the 100th anniversary on 24 April 2015 of the pogroms against Ottoman Armenians, which are claimed to be 'genocide', the 5th anniversary on 15 June 2015 of the UK Government's apology for Bloody Sunday, and the 10th anniversary of the apology in Argentina on 24 March 2014 for disappeared civilians during the dictatorship.
This project will utilise these milestones as catalysts for its inquiry into the functions and modes of apologies. In so doing, its central focus of critiquing the utility of apologies as a linear culmination, termination and/or expiation of wrongdoing will permeate its comparative analysis of these case studies. The project will gather new primary data through participant observation and focus groups at the workshop with external participants, and will compile a database cataloguing the lead up, and reaction, to apologies through desktop analysis of online and archival primary sources such as newspapers, government documents, TRC, witness statements and campaign groups' materials. This will be supported by secondary source analysis and review of current literature on apologies of the past fourteen years.
The central aim of the project is to harvest data on official apologies and campaigns for official apologies in the 21st century in relation to their functions (why they are made) and modes (when and how). Utilising participant observation and focus group methodologies in addition to a critical review of secondary literature, the project will provide an update and a new critical assessment of the functions and modes of apologies in light of the experiences of the past fourteen years. In the process, its focus upon the role of temporality will probe the rationales (political, legal and sociological) for official apologies for historical wrongs in the contemporary zeitgeist.
The project poses the following research questions:
1. What are the forms of official apologies in the twenty-first century?
a. When and how are apologies made? For example, by what process (political, legal, diplomatic, social) are apologies mandated, by whom are they issued and to whom are they addressed?
b. What forms of language do apologies take? Are they connected to reparations or other 'material' redress or stand alone as 'moral' redress?
2. What are the functions of official apologies in the twenty-first century?
a. Why are they made? What are their ostensible purposes (remedy, reconciliation, commemoration, etc.)?
b. How are the apologies received by the addressees? How are they received by those not addressed who felt that they should have been addressed? Are there generational trends or differences in their reception?
As indicated in the project title, the project will examine apologies and campaigns for apologies in the twenty-first century (1 January 2001). Not only have apologies become more frequent in recent years but a number of milestones are approaching in relation to campaigns for recognition, apologies and reparation which provide the impetus for this project. Examples of apologies and campaigns in the twenty-first century include: the International Day of Remembrance of the Victims of Slavery and of the Transatlantic Slave Trade on 25 March 2014, the 100th anniversary on 24 April 2015 of the pogroms against Ottoman Armenians, which are claimed to be 'genocide', the 5th anniversary on 15 June 2015 of the UK Government's apology for Bloody Sunday, and the 10th anniversary of the apology in Argentina on 24 March 2014 for disappeared civilians during the dictatorship.
This project will utilise these milestones as catalysts for its inquiry into the functions and modes of apologies. In so doing, its central focus of critiquing the utility of apologies as a linear culmination, termination and/or expiation of wrongdoing will permeate its comparative analysis of these case studies. The project will gather new primary data through participant observation and focus groups at the workshop with external participants, and will compile a database cataloguing the lead up, and reaction, to apologies through desktop analysis of online and archival primary sources such as newspapers, government documents, TRC, witness statements and campaign groups' materials. This will be supported by secondary source analysis and review of current literature on apologies of the past fourteen years.
Planned Impact
In exploring the nature of apologies, by asking why, when, for whom and considering the aftermath of apologies on socio-political interactions and expressions this project impacts on a range of beneficiaries. Those include:
1) Local, regional and national politicians that include a range of views across the political spectrum, with varied attitudes towards apologies
2) Charitable organisations working directly with those closest to the apology such as local community workers and inter-communal peace charities.
3) Activist groups who may be campaigning for an apology or alternatively may have received an apology and are continuing to campaign for other reparations.
4) Local, regional and national policy makers who have direct connections with debates on apologies
5) Broader societal discussion which feel the repercussions of the apology.
Since 2001, there have been significant apologies issued by states regarding historical wrongs. The timeliness of this project contemplates past, current and potential future apologies by exploring the ways in which apologies are created, given and received. Therefore, our contribution to this ongoing pertinent political, social and wellbeing issue is that we provide, for the first time, the scope to reflect from comparative international examples where apologies were issued and enable the five beneficiaries above to share and exchange knowledge in the forum that this project establishes.
For local, regional and national politicians, the benefit is achievable through a knowledge exchange event in Derry City. This will allow local, regional and national politicians from the UK and Ireland to bridge the gap between academia and practice and learn from other examples where apologies have been issued. For charitable organisations, the rewards of this project are two-fold: first, this project allows them to articulate and express the challenges of working with communities divided by apologies and secondly, this project facilitates lesson-sharing and knowledge exchange between organisations, but also between organisations and the other beneficiaries. There is a clear benefit from this project for activist groups, including those who have received apologies, and those who have not (as yet). The benefit will be based on knowledge exchange through this event but also through the study of the database that will be openly available.
For example, organisations that campaign for 'state apologies' for wrongs that are removed from present generations as a matter of decades or even centuries (e.g. - apologies for slavery in the Caribbean or for the Armenian pogroms in the Ottoman Empire) will be tested to consider the relationship, if any, between the apology and potential reparations. Does the apology represent an end unto itself or is it merely a vehicle for claims to be put for the deaths of ancestors, deprivation of property and/or crimes against humanity that will engage a range of politically, socially and legally difficult problems? Should reparations as a matter of practicality be time-limited? The project will engage with these organisations to conduct a self-reflective exercise by comparing their experiences with those others' and critique the expectations that they place upon official apologies in light of the conceptual issues to be explored in the networking workshop.
Finally, the project has a keen interest and capacity to engage with international media including Radio Liberty Armenia and BBC Northern Ireland. Our team comprise a experienced commentators on these media outlets and we will utilize these skills to improve the opportunities for wider public dissemination and engagement and thus contribute to ongoing debates and discussions about historical wrongs and apologies. This societal impact will be amplified through engagement with both news organisations and social media (e.g. - webpage blogging).
1) Local, regional and national politicians that include a range of views across the political spectrum, with varied attitudes towards apologies
2) Charitable organisations working directly with those closest to the apology such as local community workers and inter-communal peace charities.
3) Activist groups who may be campaigning for an apology or alternatively may have received an apology and are continuing to campaign for other reparations.
4) Local, regional and national policy makers who have direct connections with debates on apologies
5) Broader societal discussion which feel the repercussions of the apology.
Since 2001, there have been significant apologies issued by states regarding historical wrongs. The timeliness of this project contemplates past, current and potential future apologies by exploring the ways in which apologies are created, given and received. Therefore, our contribution to this ongoing pertinent political, social and wellbeing issue is that we provide, for the first time, the scope to reflect from comparative international examples where apologies were issued and enable the five beneficiaries above to share and exchange knowledge in the forum that this project establishes.
For local, regional and national politicians, the benefit is achievable through a knowledge exchange event in Derry City. This will allow local, regional and national politicians from the UK and Ireland to bridge the gap between academia and practice and learn from other examples where apologies have been issued. For charitable organisations, the rewards of this project are two-fold: first, this project allows them to articulate and express the challenges of working with communities divided by apologies and secondly, this project facilitates lesson-sharing and knowledge exchange between organisations, but also between organisations and the other beneficiaries. There is a clear benefit from this project for activist groups, including those who have received apologies, and those who have not (as yet). The benefit will be based on knowledge exchange through this event but also through the study of the database that will be openly available.
For example, organisations that campaign for 'state apologies' for wrongs that are removed from present generations as a matter of decades or even centuries (e.g. - apologies for slavery in the Caribbean or for the Armenian pogroms in the Ottoman Empire) will be tested to consider the relationship, if any, between the apology and potential reparations. Does the apology represent an end unto itself or is it merely a vehicle for claims to be put for the deaths of ancestors, deprivation of property and/or crimes against humanity that will engage a range of politically, socially and legally difficult problems? Should reparations as a matter of practicality be time-limited? The project will engage with these organisations to conduct a self-reflective exercise by comparing their experiences with those others' and critique the expectations that they place upon official apologies in light of the conceptual issues to be explored in the networking workshop.
Finally, the project has a keen interest and capacity to engage with international media including Radio Liberty Armenia and BBC Northern Ireland. Our team comprise a experienced commentators on these media outlets and we will utilize these skills to improve the opportunities for wider public dissemination and engagement and thus contribute to ongoing debates and discussions about historical wrongs and apologies. This societal impact will be amplified through engagement with both news organisations and social media (e.g. - webpage blogging).
| Description | The research developed through the grant has revealed that governmental apologies for historical wrongs can generate long-lasting, and at times unpredictable, consequences for both the country and the victims. Key findings are that: • The early twenty-first century witnessed an 'apology-boom' in which governments considered or offered apologies for historical wrongs. However, apologies remain highly complex and should be considered as part of a broader process. • The process leading up to an apology places a burden on the victims, not the perpetrators, to establish guilt, accountability and to challenge official lines. • While governmental apologies have a moral component, they are ultimately political actions. Although they might be designed to provide a conclusion to demands or to a debate, apologies should be regarded as part of a wider political dialogue and process. They do not function as a conclusion in a dispute. • How the apology is represented in the media and by those involved in the campaign can significantly influence the reception and the effectiveness of the apology among the victims. • The making of a governmental apology can create a legacy for future generations. For example, commemoration activities could be continued or abandoned as a result of the governmental apology being perceived to be the culmination of a campaign. Official versions of history based on apologies can also potentially be used to silence debates about history, such as through the criminalisation of denial of the official version. • Reparations connected to apologies can take different forms - they do not necessarily involve money or a transfer of assets. They could, for example, involve altering an 'official' narrative of history, in school textbooks or the acknowledgement of historical roots. These are generally slow to materialise due to their wide-reaching impact on society. Dr Arman Sarvarian, lecturer at the University of Surrey, said: 'The importance of this project is evident in the continuous stream of governmental apologies being issued, each with its own context and challenges, yet all sharing similar dynamics. Government officials should reflect upon the potential for positive and negative consequences of issuing an apology in a given case and whether the methods used in making official apologies can be improved in general. Whilst the governmental apology could be an important factor in the resolution of the decades-long Cyprus conflict, its role and relationship to other important factors, such as reparations, need to be carefully considered.' These findings make an original contribution to the understanding of the nature and consequences of governmental apologies. As they become more frequent, research into their meaning and the methods by which they are made offers valuable insight into the potential benefits and drawbacks of the various techniques employed in their use. In particular, the role played by time, the reception of the apologies by civil society and the relationship between apologies and reparations are all topical and important areas. The project also revealed that the comparative methodology employed by the research team can be effective in enabling representatives from civil society to reflect upon the meaning of governmental apologies with reference to the experiences of other cases. Whereas the historical cases of Caribbean slavery, Bloody Sunday, the Ottoman Genocide, sexual abuse of children in Northern Ireland and forced removal of Indigenous children in Canada have at first sight little commonality, the themes and dynamics that they raise share common characteristics. There is accordingly scope for useful work to bring a reflective and self-conscious perspective to civil society and government in illustrating the consequences, at times unforeseen, that governmental apologies can have. |
| Exploitation Route | These findings could be applied to the fields of government, civil society, education and culture. Governments could use the knowledge gained to inform their practice in the enactment of official apologies for historical wrongs; for example, through the use of inquiries and prosecutions, the making of reparations and negotiations with campaign groups concerning the issuing of apologies. Campaign groups in civil society could use the research to better understand the role of the apology in their campaigns; for example, in the formulation of common demands of the governments, negotiations amongst campaign groups and victims concerning negotiation strategies with governments and reflection upon the implications of their demands and campaign strategies in various areas of social and political life as well as insight into representations by the media of their campaigns. In education, the role of apologies in the writing of history textbooks on controversial episodes is a critical area. For example, the presentation of the context in which the apology was made and the reception of the apology by victims and campaign groups are both important for an informed and nuanced understanding of the role and implications of those apologies. The understanding of the apology as part of a continuing process rather than a linear conclusion to a longstanding dispute is also important in order to inform new generations, lacking firsthand experience of the events in question, of the complexities of the apology. Moreover, journalists can use the research to better inform their presentation of apologies, campaigns and historical disputes to their audiences. The media has an important role to play in shaping societies' understandings of apologies and their significance in political disputes. In culture, the portrayal of apologies, historical trauma and campaigns for apologies through art and other media can draw upon the research to enrich perceptions of the role of time, problems across generations and the creation of new social dilemmas resulting from perceptions of imperfect or incomplete apologies. Inclusion and exclusion, denial of justice or justice fulfilled, and other deep emotions can be portrayed with reference to the historical, political and social challenges that governmental apologies and the narratives of history that they can create. |
| Sectors | Communities and Social Services/Policy,Environment,Government, Democracy and Justice,Culture, Heritage, Museums and Collections,Security and Diplomacy |
| URL | http://www.apologiesproject.co.uk |
| Description | The findings have been used primarily by charities and non-governmental organisations who are campaigners for official governmental apologies, recognition of history and/or reparations for historical wrongs. Through the project activities and dissemination, campaign groups have engaged in a reflective re-evaluation of their goals, strategies and tactics. The comparative element of the project from one case study to another was particularly valuable in providing insight from similar-yet-distinct examples of campaigns for apologies, thus enabling each campaign group to reflect on the approach that takes to its campaign and to learn about new points of comparison and collaboration across different campaigns. |
| First Year Of Impact | 2015 |
| Sector | Communities and Social Services/Policy,Government, Democracy and Justice,Culture, Heritage, Museums and Collections |
| Impact Types | Cultural,Societal |
| Description | Mediate Northern Ireland - Derry Workshop |
| Organisation | Armenian General Benevolent Union |
| Country | United States |
| Sector | Charity/Non Profit |
| PI Contribution | The research team worked with the partner organisation to organise a research workshop held at the offices of the Holywell Trust in Derry, Northern Ireland. The one-day workshop gathered representatives from NGO campaign groups, victims and academia from the United Kingdom, Ireland, Turkey, Sweden and Belgium pertaining to the following project case studies: 1) Bloody Sunday (Northern Ireland); 2) Ottoman Genocide (Turkey); and 3) Caribbean slavery (United Kingdom). The workshop, held on a confidential basis, featured a valuable series of discussions in focus groups concerning the project themes. These discussions were transcribed and used by the research team to enrich and inform their investigation in the research project. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Mediate Northern Ireland collaborated with the research team to organise and host the research workshop. They facilitated the logistics of the event, which included an educational guided tour of the city of Derry by representatives of its two communities, and also assisted in making invitations to victims and NGO activists in Ireland and Northern Ireland to attend the event. Their collaboration was invaluable in realising the project workshop, which was a centrepiece of the research project as a whole, and their in kind contribution helped to make it happen. |
| Impact | The immediate impact of the collaboration was through the project workshop, which was fruitful and featured an innovative comparative format whereby persons from quite different case studies held discussions on the meaning and experiences of governmental apologies. The unorthodox and original format was considered by the workshop participants to have been successful and the participants thanked the organisers for having staged a reflective and informative event that would enrich their subsequent activities in their respective campaigns. The collaboration is multi-disciplinary, including representatives from within and without academia and from the fields of politics, sociology, law and history. The collaboration with Mediate Northern Ireland has laid a foundation for subsequent work based upon the developmental project. The organisation has expressed keen interest in continuing work on the understanding of governmental apologies, particularly in civil society. |
| Start Year | 2015 |
| Description | Mediate Northern Ireland - Derry Workshop |
| Organisation | Mediation Northern Ireland |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | The research team worked with the partner organisation to organise a research workshop held at the offices of the Holywell Trust in Derry, Northern Ireland. The one-day workshop gathered representatives from NGO campaign groups, victims and academia from the United Kingdom, Ireland, Turkey, Sweden and Belgium pertaining to the following project case studies: 1) Bloody Sunday (Northern Ireland); 2) Ottoman Genocide (Turkey); and 3) Caribbean slavery (United Kingdom). The workshop, held on a confidential basis, featured a valuable series of discussions in focus groups concerning the project themes. These discussions were transcribed and used by the research team to enrich and inform their investigation in the research project. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Mediate Northern Ireland collaborated with the research team to organise and host the research workshop. They facilitated the logistics of the event, which included an educational guided tour of the city of Derry by representatives of its two communities, and also assisted in making invitations to victims and NGO activists in Ireland and Northern Ireland to attend the event. Their collaboration was invaluable in realising the project workshop, which was a centrepiece of the research project as a whole, and their in kind contribution helped to make it happen. |
| Impact | The immediate impact of the collaboration was through the project workshop, which was fruitful and featured an innovative comparative format whereby persons from quite different case studies held discussions on the meaning and experiences of governmental apologies. The unorthodox and original format was considered by the workshop participants to have been successful and the participants thanked the organisers for having staged a reflective and informative event that would enrich their subsequent activities in their respective campaigns. The collaboration is multi-disciplinary, including representatives from within and without academia and from the fields of politics, sociology, law and history. The collaboration with Mediate Northern Ireland has laid a foundation for subsequent work based upon the developmental project. The organisation has expressed keen interest in continuing work on the understanding of governmental apologies, particularly in civil society. |
| Start Year | 2015 |
| Description | University of Central Lancashire - Cyprus Workshop |
| Organisation | University of Central Lancashire |
| Department | Lancashire Law School |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | The principal investigator of the research team collaborated with Dr Athanasia Hadjigeorgiou of the School of Law of the University of Central Lancashire (Cyprus) to stage a workshop at the University's campus in Pila on 21 September 2015. The twenty-one workshop participants comprised journalists, civil society activists, officials and academics from Cyprus, Armenia and the United Kingdom, and included representatives of the Greek, Turkish and Armenian communities in Cyprus. The conclusions of the project were presented and debated at the one-day workshop with particular reference to the issue of reparations in Cyprus at a particularly topical time in the history of the Cyprus problem. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Dr Athanasia Hadjigeorgiou was instrumental in organising and hosting the one-day project workshop at the campus of UCLAN. She not only facilitated the provision of logistics (including visas and accommodation) but she also secured an in-kind contribution from UCLAN to the costs of the event. She also secured the participation of numerous participants from the Cypriot communities in the event, laying the foundation for potential collaboration in future with these organisations as a result of an interesting and stimulating event. The workshop attendees are as follows: Andromachi Sophocleous - co-founder of Cypriot Puzzle, NGO in Cyprus Andy Georgiou - co-founder of Cypriot Puzzle, NGO in Cyprus Katerina Antoniou - UCLan Cyprus, PhD student Achilleas Demetriades - lawyer and founder of truthnowcyprus.org Dr Erol Kaymak - Eastern Mediterranean University, Department of Political Sciences and International Relations Dr Bulent Kanol - Management Centre of the Mediterranean and University of Manchester Gulden Plumer Kucuk - Turkish Cypriot member of the Missing Persons Committee Dr Costas Constanti - Founder, Cyprus Academic Dialogue, NGO Cyprus Dina Kapardis - United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus Dr Arman Sarvarian - University of Surrey Professor Ruben Safrastyan - Historian, Republic of Armenia Academy of Sciences Mr Abraham Kasbarian - Journalist, Public Television of Armenia Mr Edgar Davtyan - Public Television of Armenia Mrs Hripsime Arakelyan - Editor-in-chief, Public Radio of Armenia Mr Nareg Seferian - Instructor, American University of Armenia Dr Christalla Yakintou - University of Birmingham Michael Doherty - Mediate Northern Ireland Esther Stanford-Xosei - Pan-African Reparations Coalition in Europe Dr John Strawson - University of East London Dr Anyaa Anim-Addo - University of Leeds |
| Impact | The workshop had an immediate societal impact through the participation of the workshop attendees, particularly representatives from civil society. The debate was lively and valuable and the workshop participants expressed their appreciation for the opportunity to reflect upon and learn about the themes of the project, which will impact upon their activities. The workshop was the first of its kind on the island of Cyprus and was held in a particularly poignant location: the village of Pila, which is the only remaining mixed-community locale in the Republic of Cyprus. As a result of the workshop, groundwork has been laid for collaboration between Dr Arman Sarvarian and Dr Athanasia Hadjigeorgiou on a spin-off research project emerging from the topic of apologies. The project concerns the use of judgments of international courts and tribunals to create official narratives of history, the aim of which would be to investigate the treatment of these judgments by governmental entities as bases for history. The investigators plan to build an international team for the project with a view to bidding for a European Research Council Starting Grant in the 2016 round. |
| Start Year | 2015 |
| Description | Braniff, M., (2016) 'Acknowledgement, Memory and History in Northern Ireland: Legislating for Truth and Justice' at European Innocent Victims Seminar, Fermanagh |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A formal working group, expert panel or dialogue |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Policymakers/politicians |
| Results and Impact | Expert contribution to Conference which sparked questions and follow-up conversations and analysis. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2016 |
| Description | Braniff, M., (2016) Between Myth and Memory: The Stormont House Agreement and legislating for truth, acknowledgement and justice in Northern Ireland', |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | National |
| Primary Audience | Policymakers/politicians |
| Results and Impact | Discussion and questions generated to explore further research areas. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2016 |
| Description | Presentation: Historical Justice and Memory Conference |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | This event was attended by a range of audiences with up to 30 members in attendance. There were questions and debate and prospects for a future spin-off project on apology and acknowledgement being developed. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2010,2016 |
| URL | http://historicaldialogues.org/2016-network-conference/ |
| Description | Sarvarian, A. (2015) - Reparations for Slavery Conference - University of Edinburgh |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | The conference comprised delegates from academia as well as governmental (principally Caribbean Community officials) and non-governmental organisations who are campaigners for reparations from the United Kingdom and other European countries for historical slavery. I was an academic who presented on the findings of our project, which presentation was before a session of approximately 20-25 delegates and was recorded and podcasted. The format consisted of a presentation followed by questions and answers and the total event was three days with much informal discussion. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2015 |
| URL | http://conferences.hss.ed.ac.uk/reparations/ |