Extending working lives - health and well being implications and facilitators

Lead Research Organisation: University of Westminster
Department Name: Faculty of Arch & the Built Environment

Abstract

Summary

The key focus of this international and interdisciplinary programme of research is to provide insights into how to promote longer and healthier working lives which are resilient to the pressures of globalised, intensified and highly competitive labour markets. The study is divided into four work strands which examine macro, meso and micro levels and are unified by a focus on the maintenance of health and well being among older workers.

WP1 investigates recent and planned international policy responses to ageing workforce issues. This strand of research will identify measures taken in relation to both the demand and supply side, and explore the rationale and trade-off decisions taken by policy makers. The implications of particular reform paths for different social groups will be examined. Also of interest is the extent to which welfare regime/varieties of capitalism typologies remain relevant in terms of the priorities and policies pursued and how policymakers articulate ageing worker issues and solutions.

Work package 2 investigates the health and well being implications of longer working lives for different socio-economic groups, comparing health and well being outcomes among those 'retiring' compared with those remaining employed at older ages. Econometric analysis of several international panel datasets will be used to model impacts. In addition, a qualitative longitudinal study of individuals, followed for 3 years as they make the transition from employment to retirement, will be undertaken. A sample of 140 individuals in the UK, US and Italy will be selected. The qualitative strand of the research will shed light on the quantitative findings and indicate the mechanisms by which health outcomes may vary for different social groups in different cultural contexts, tracking changes in a wide range of health related behaviours over the transitional period.

Work package 3 focuses on the workplace to investigate workplace policies and practices which may be associated with perecptions of work strain, well being and satisfaction, exploring how and whether impacts differ among different age groups and whether particular practices may therefore impede or promote extended working lives.

WP 4 aims to understand the operation of older worker labour markets (OWLMs) (including changing jobs, changing hours of work and employment re-entry following a period of retirement/unemployment/inactivity). The study will investigate whether, how and why OWLMs differ in different national contexts and examine the implications of different OWLMs for (a) different social groups in terms of opportunities and job quality (b) competition between young and older workers (c) employment duration and (d) ability to adequately prepare financially for 'retirement'.

As an interdisciplinary study, the research will promote the cross fertilisation of ideas and approaches from economists, gerontologists, psychologists, sociologists and health experts all of whom bring distinctive perspectives to bear. The study will adopt and develop broad theoretical frameworks to explore the issues of interest.

Planned Impact

Impact summary
The research is expected to generate far-reaching impacts and learning of benefit to: individuals; employers; government and other policy makers; and academics. The study will contribute towards evidence based policy-making and will influence public policies and legislation at a national and international level. The potential challenges associated with an ageing workforce are global in reach and the research is designed to ensure lessons are learned from an international perspective.

As an interdisciplinary study, the research will promote the cross fertilisation of ideas and approaches as economists, psychologists and sociologists all bring distinctive perspectives to bear. The study will provide clear, evidence based recommendations for a range of stakeholders, meaningful for individuals, health professionals, employers and policy makers.

Older Workers: Above all, the study aims to benefit the ageing workforce by: promoting understanding of the health/well being risks associated with extending working lives; identifying the factors which can enhance adaptation, resilience and maintenance of job quality at older ages (and conversely identify which groups require targeted support and the nature of support needed); and identifying the factors, resources and contexts associated with positive health related behaviour over the transitional period from work to 'retirement'.

Employers: The study will identify the range of management practices and workplace conditions which may be associated with reduced well being and heightened work strain at older ages. It will also highlight which policies and practices enhance well being or mitigate adverse effects of other aspects of working life. Improved understanding of the barriers and facilitators to longer working lives will enable employers to improve their age management strategies or modify their organisational culture and practices.

Government and other policymakers: Ultimately the research aims to improve understanding of the range of supply and demand side policies which promote extended working life opportunities while also promoting quality of life, health and well being. Implications of different policy strategies will be highlighted. The research will therefore be of considerable interest to policymakers in the UK, in relation to both the 'extending working life' and the 'health, work and well being strategy (HWWB)' agenda. The findings will therefore inform policy development. International policymakers including, for example, the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EASHW), Eurofound and other agencies which have been promoting the need for better 'age management' in the workplace will also benefit from the study.

Charitable and voluntary groups: A range of groups, agencies and organisations provide support for older workers, campaigning for their rights, assisting the unemployed, helping those in transition periods, providing careers advice etc. These groups will be targeted for dissemination purposes to ensure study findings relating to opportunities in the labour market, health risks and good employer practice are taken on board and, where appropriate, acted upon.

In addition to targeted, well designed resources tailored to a broad range of stakeholders, more traditional dissemination activities will also be pursued, including international events; press activity; policy bulletins; conference attendance; and publications in leading journals. A web page dedicated to the programme of research will also be developed and updated on a regular basis to provide information on events and findings as they emerge. The project will be further supported by the The Age and Employment Network (TAEN) which has an integral role within the study. TAEN have a strong track record in promoting learning for older people, stakeholders, businesses, policy makers and the academic community.
 
Description Please see Toplines Findings Final Report 2017 (http://workandretirement.uk/)
Achievements from the award summarised

Overarching objectives of the project:
• To promote understanding of health and wellbeing later in life - both in the workplace and as people make the transition to retirement, including:
o subjective and objective health implications associated with delaying retirement
o workplace policies and practices that support/impede wellbeing and satisfaction at older ages (with implications for employment duration)
o experiences of and support needs during the retirement transition

• To examine later life labour markets including:
o the policies that shape patterns of employment
o the role of flexible working / phased retirement opportunities
o job quality and the accommodation of older workers
o the extent to which delayed retirement places older workers at risk of labour market marginalisation
o reverse retirement - key determinants (including economic push factors)

Objectives have been met with key findings summarised below, followed by an indication of their policy relevance and which stakeholders might take the findings forward.

Key findings
Key findings detailed below are clustered under the following headings:
A) Health and wellbeing implications of extended working life
B) Later life wellbeing and satisfaction in the workplace
C) Later Life Labour Markets
D) Retirement


A) Health and wellbeing implications of extended working life
• Health impact of working vs retiring. Subjective perceptions of wellbeing are compromised and the incidence of chronic health conditions increase when comparing retirees with similar workers (matched on age, baseline health, gender and other characteristics). Retirement adversely affects retirees' health in the immediate post-retirement period and, over the longer term, a downward trend is maintained with the subjective and objective health of retirees declining further relative to those who remain in work. Subgroup analysis indicates that the same story holds for men and women and for those from physical and non-physical occupational backgrounds.

• Habit discontinuity and opportunities for interventions at retirement. Depth interviews highlight that retirement is seen to present an opportunity for positive habit change for some retirees, particularly when the nature of their jobs or hours they work are seen as obstacles to more healthy practices, for example due to time constraints, lack of energy or feeling stressed (whether in relation to physical activity, healthy eating or alcohol consumption). Others see risks associated with retirement, with a fear of drinking alcohol more frequently in the absence of work commitments, over-eating due to boredom, and/or slowing down or 'vegetating', lapsing into a state of inactivity. Particular barriers to healthy lifestyles cited included: living alone, cold wet winter weather; no longer having sporting companions; motivation deficits; mobility difficulties; and reduced incomes alongside the cost of some preferred activities, practices and club memberships. The health implications of retirement are therefore complex and context dependent. Interviewees who were vocal that retirement carried risks were open to advice, support and interventions that may help prevent such feared outcomes.

• Sedentary workers - implications of retirement. One legacy of the 20th century labour market is a growth in the volume of sedentary occupations. As more and more retirees are leaving inactive jobs, this study examines how people change their level and type of physical activity across the domains of transport, housework and leisure following a longitudinal qualitative sample of recent retirees in England, Italy and North-western United States. This was supplemented by respondents' accounts of motivations, enablers and barriers regarding their activity levels. Feeling mentally tired and having little time left for oneself at the end of a working day are key obstacles to physical activity while still in paid employment. Retirement might therefore be expected to improve physical activity (PA). Although on average work-retirement transition trends show a drop in PA as retirees on the whole do not compensate for previous work PA (Banks et al., 2014), it can be expected that people retiring from sedentary jobs are a separate case because their PA almost exclusively occurs outside of work time. A key finding from the analysis of change over the retirement transition is that PA is a lifelong habit and people don't make dramatic changes after leaving sedentary type work. Nevertheless, on the whole, self-reported PA increased during the transition to retirement across household, transport and leisure-time domains. Changes were observed in the variety, intensity and duration of home maintenance as retirees tackled long neglected cleaning and clearing, painting and decorating, and garden tasks. Men in particular took on building projects around the home and sometimes for family and friends. Continuity in the type of leisure-time PA was a common theme. Those with a history of certain sports and leisure-time PA tended to maintain or increase the duration or intensity of these activities when retired. Change in variety was found in the transport domain as respondents consciously eschewed the car for walking and cycling as a means to increase their fitness. Moreover, some respondents added to their fitness levels through physically active volunteer opportunities such as gardening. Conditions that seemed to influence positive changes and maintain PA levels were:

o Medical advice to increase fitness levels
o Fitness combined with social opportunities (especially for women)
o Commitment to fitness fees or a fitness buddy
o Dog walking
o Devices and Apps that provide physical monitoring data

Factors described as presenting obstacles to preferred levels or types of PA:
o Health and mobility problems
o Caring responsibilities
o A lack of companions with whom to engage in PA (whether sporting activities or simply going for a walk)
o Costs of club membership
o Cold wet winter weather
o Poor motivation levels

For the growing numbers of sedentary workers who already rely on activities outside work to maintain their physical wellbeing, this study found that retirement can increase opportunities for physical fitness. The establishment of good PA habits should therefore begin prior to retirement.

• Early voluntary retirement - health motivations. Health was a particularly prominent concern among older workers in discussions of early voluntary retirement motivations. In relation to early retirement, there is a sense that time is running out and there are more important things than money. Many wish to enjoy their retirement while still relatively young and in good health and see continued working as a risk to their physical health and wellbeing (with stressful, sedentary and more strenuous jobs each carrying different risks). Many spoke of feeling worn out and tired. Given the degree of health pessimism (despite evidence that working can preserve health) there is still a long way to go for policymakers to reverse the entrenched preference for early retirement which will increasingly become the preserve of more socio-economically advantaged individuals as defined benefit pension schemes disappear and the state pension age is pushed back.

• Early retirement culture - health pessimism. In relation to increases in SPa to 68, most interviewees felt that the system was not flexible enough and that having a single pensionable age was unrealistic, failing to acknowledge the accumulated impact of different occupational backgrounds. Some respondents raised concerns about the difficulty of coping in jobs in their late 60s given their experience of slowing mental responses and feeling more tired. Earlier retirement was seen as vital to prevent the onset or deterioration of health. One major and common objection to later pensionable ages was the possibility of not surviving long enough to reach SPA or not surviving long thereafter. Not only were people concerned that they would not get the opportunity to enjoy a sufficiently long retirement, but they were particularly aggrieved at the prospect of having paid into a system all their lives they may not receive fair returns.

• Opportunities to work in retirement welcomed. Optimism about retirement is related to the optionality of work in the years ahead, but not if continued work is a financial necessity. The study explored the relationship between the optionality of work in retirement and individuals' overall outlook about their retirement years. We hypothesized that individual who viewed work in retirement as an option would also have a more favorable outlook for their retirement years. Such opportunities can allay fears relating to future financial circumstances, maintain social relationships and permit a return to work should retirement not live up to expectations. We find that there is indeed a relationship between the optionality of continued work later in life and retirement satisfaction and overall well-being, but that the relationship only holds among those for whom work truly is an option, as opposed to a financial necessity.

B) Later life wellbeing and satisfaction in the workplace

• Job satisfaction declining - job quality and working conditions implicated. The ageing workforce policy debate is rightly focussed on providing opportunities for older people to continue working should they so wish. However, the prevalence of heteronomy, alienation, and more pressurised working environments associated with the 'new capitalism', should not be underestimated as key barriers to work motivation later in life. Studies have repeatedly shown that older workers are generally more committed to their organisations and have higher job satisfaction than younger workers. This satisfaction/ commitment premium, however, has been slipping since the early 90s. Increasing demands, more intensified working environments and other changes in the workplace amount to significant shifts in the terms and conditions of jobs, accompanied by a sense of contract violation, deteriorating job satisfaction and organisational commitment. While 'continuous change' has been a characteristic of workplaces for many years now, the pressure to continue on a path of improved efficiency is unlikely to have run out of steam, and will remain a feature of public and private sector working practices given current concerns with low productivity and weak growth in the UK. While the government has instituted a fairly comprehensive range of policies to promote EWL, job quality remains an obstacle to further progress.

• Erosion of age related wage and earnings differentials and emergence of work organisation based on principles of synchronous equality. A paradigm shift in Britain's structure of incentives is underway. Older workers have been losing their privileged status as age related earnings differentials are eroded. Older employees' earnings declined over the period 1991-2006 compared with younger employees - with an overall fall in relative earnings of 21 per cent. These developments suggest that a process of greater inter-generational equality, at least in terms of earnings, is in progress alongside the emergence of management practices dominated by principles of synchronous equality. The findings have broad implications for employment relationships and service contracts in the UK and raise the prospect of increased labour commodification; they also raise questions in relation to potential impacts on firm performance that arises from change in structures of incentive. The erosion of age related wage and earnings differentials points to a weakening if not abandonment of the deferred compensation paradigm, less employer tolerance for poorly aligned performance and rewards, and therefore fewer 'safe havens' in late career - older workers are likely to be enduring more pressured working environments as a consequence with implications for wellbeing. Tensions between equality and fairness arise alongside questions of dignity at work; systematic performance management and staff appraisal have become more widespread and, as conceptualized by Beck and Williams (2015: 271), "synchronous equality based on continual comparison has replaced an a-synchronous, or processional approach in which younger people eventually benefit from a provision which favours older employeesa considerable departure from how age groups have been managed to date". Achieving equality of pay, treatment or performance criteria may therefore be at the expense of protecting older workers.
• Older workers exhibit resilience if processes of adaptation are supported. High Performance Work Practices, designed to enhance workforce productivity and performance, are found to be largely compatible with the extended working life agenda; a deficit perspective of ageing workers is refuted. Findings do, however, highlight the need for 'a-synchronous equality' management frameworks that facilitate individual adaptations within the workplace as needs, priorities and abilities evolve over the working lifetime.

C) Later Life Labour Markets
• Job Mobility. To promote longer working lives it is recognised that people may need to change their jobs and retrain more often to keep pace with technological change and shifting needs and abilities associated with ageing. However, job mobility rates differ across the developed world, with higher rates evident in 'liberal' welfare regimes, while elsewhere low job mobility continues to characterise later life labour markets (LLLMs). Identifying optimal levels of mobility is a considerable challenge - overly high levels incur excessive transaction costs and wasted/ underinvestment in training while very low mobility may dampen economy wide innovation and undermine efficient allocation of resources to match the ebb and flow of industrial restructuring within a global economic context. Too much or too little mobility therefore has implications for productivity and economic growth. Not only is national economic performance at stake but so too are the employment prospects of different groups of workers. Strict employment protection legislation and low mobility may benefit 'insiders' i.e. well qualified individuals in good health who are in decent protected jobs but can disadvantage non-core 'outsider' groups such as: older workers who might be positioned at the bottom of 'job queues' (Reskin and Roos, 1990). With competing national costs and benefits and uneven impacts across the labour force, difficult trade off decisions need to be taken. Mobility patterns in the liberal economies of USA, UK and Australia are compared with an Eastern European country (Czech Republic), a continental European economy (Germany) and a Mediterranean country (Italy). The latter three countries were characterised by low mobility in the 90s (Hofacker, 2010; Blossfeld et al, 2006) but since that time widespread reforms aimed at extending working lives have been implemented, most notably: increased SPa, closure of early retirement disability benefit routes and unemployment activation measures. As a result, the European countries have exhibited strong increases in employment participation rates among older men and women. However, despite converging policy landscapes and convergence in participation rates, in comparison with the liberal economies, there has been no convergence in mobility propensities. The European countries are still characterised by low mobility after the age of 50. Welfare retrenchment and raised pension ages have largely been unaccompanied by other labour market changes that might impact upon capacity to change jobs such as employment protection legislation, lifelong learning and employer recruitment propensities.

• Marginalisation. In the higher mobility countries disquiet has been voiced in relation to the potential 'McDonaldisation' of old age (Macnicol, 2008; Roberts, 2006; Standing, 2011; Lain, 2012) - of concern is the extent to which older workers in searching for jobs that better meet their needs and circumstances are channelled into a more narrow range of occupations characterised by lower status, pay, skill and safety. In both the EU and England two thirds of job changers maintain their occupational status, of the remainder, downward mobility is more common than promotion with a full one fifth experiencing a fall in the status and skill level of their job. Implications arise for material wellbeing and ability to save for the future and may also have implications for competition between younger and older workers who may vie for the same unskilled jobs.

• Marginalisation trade-offs. It is plausible that individuals have chosen to downshift later in life in order to have a more relaxed and phased transition toward retirement. Downward mobility may therefore be associated with enhanced satisfaction, reduced work pressure and a reduction in physical strain. Under these circumstances the label 'marginalised', which carries negative connotations, might be less appropriate than more neutral terminology such as 'bridge jobs' used widely in American labour market literature. Downward mobility may be associated with a calculated trade-off between lower status and pay against higher satisfaction and less physical or mental strain. Study findings indicate some offsetting benefits. A process of marginalisation is apparent for a large minority of job changers. While this downward mobility at older ages is not offset in our countries of study by gains in psychological wellbeing, job satisfaction or reductions in the incidence of physically demanding roles, reduced job strain is evident however, likely reflecting the significance of work stress as a key trigger for job change.

• Phased Retirement. Phased retirement programs and part-time working opportunities later in life may be popular but they reduce the intensive margin (working hours per week) without raising the extensive margin (working years). What is good for the individual may therefore not be good for the economy. The study investigated the impact of phased retirement across Europe and England finding a negative influence on retirement age. The decrease is stronger in Central and Eastern Europe than in liberal and Scandinavian countries. We conclude that part-time working at the end of a career reduces labor supply. Further qualitative research is warranted to better understand these counter-intuitive trends.

D) Retirement
• Reverse retirement. Using methodological triangulation to compare reverse retirement in USA, England and Italy reveals considerable diversity of practice and orientation. Over two yearly periods around 10% of American retirees return to work compared with 6% in England. In Italy retirement is more of a one way street. Reverse retirement is associated in the liberal economies of the USA and England with financial factors including retirement income, having more children, children under 30 and mortgage debts. In the American context, the highest earners were least likely to reverse retire while middle income groups exhibited the highest propensity to return to work and depth interviews revealed that a strong financial anxiety often underscores decisions to return to work even among the more affluent. Financial need may be a push factor but a certain degree of advantage is a pre-requisite in terms of education level, good health, being of younger age and free from caring responsibilities. Opportunity structures and capacity to work are therefore critical and represent a site of inequality later in life.

The qualitative strand of evidence indicated that dissatisfaction with retirement was a further motivation for working, and one of the main sources of discontentment was the view that there were too few opportunities for social engagement and a lack of community that might facilitate casual or more regular social contact. The depth interviews also highlighted distinct orientations toward retirement in the three countries - in Italy a family orientation was dominant alongside a perception that retirement was a time to wind down. For Americans a work orientation dominated narrative accounts of retirement which was often described as a time to take on new challenges rather than live a life of leisure. The English fell between these two extremes, were most oriented toward personal leisure but open to working on an occasional/ intermittent basis as part of a patchwork of activities embracing multiple spheres of life. Among the work oriented a desire for considerable flexibility was evident. Where the prime attraction of retirement is time sovereignty and the ability to be spontaneous, reduced hours do not provide the degree of flexibility desired as part-time jobs still require a regular commitment. Zero hours contracts would meet the flexibility needs of these retirees. Although widely criticised as depriving people of employment rights, security and financial stability, these are not the job characteristics which older workers are necessarily searching for. The English differed somewhat from the Americans by seeing themselves primarily as retired but would appreciate and benefit from opportunities to work sporadically. A more accurate description of the phenomenon in England might therefore be 'working in retirement' rather than 'reverse' or 'unretirement'. The Americans were less likely to describe themselves as retired on re-entering the labour market looking for new challenges.

Despite international policy convergence around the extended working life agenda, the meaning of retirement, lifestyle orientations, and the role of work in retirement were still found to be quite distinct in Italy, USA and England. A one size fits all policy agenda, such as the normative goals of 'active' or 'productive' ageing may be a useful antidote to traditional conceptualisations of retirement as a time of disengagement and decline but risks an overly homogenised and prescriptive expectation of later life.

• Active ageing (AA) paradigm - scope to improve AA normative expectations to better reflect retirement experiences and aspirations. The normative 'Active Ageing' (AA) concept now informs strategic policy in relation to older people across Europe. Comparing retirees in England, Italy and USA the study demonstrated that, although some dominant themes differed within each country (e.g. more work-oriented plans from US respondents, more care-related plans from Italian respondents and a leisure orientation among the English), retirement plans of the interviewees were largely consistent with the active ageing policy agenda. The study also revealed retirement expectations with an individual leisure focus. In essence, although it is important to measure the untapped potential of older people for active ageing from a productivist perspective, to ensure that latent demand for such opportunities are met, this study suggests the importance of also measuring other dimensions of retirement which have implications for the quality of life and wellbeing of older people. Findings pointed to the need for the AA paradigm to take greater account of individual wellbeing, by including indicators of leisure activities which were a prevalent retirement goal and by considering the re-weighting of employment and informal care dimensions as these 'productive' activities often reflected constrained choice and compromised satisfaction. One further potential weakness of the active ageing paradigm is that it may implicitly encourage older people to hold on, for as long as possible, to priorities and productive lifestyles characteristic of earlier life-stages. The risk is that this approach fails to recognise that quality of life and wellbeing of older people may also depend on a shift in pace, rhythms and focus.

• Supporting the retirement transition. Policies should not only address employment opportunities and flexibilities later in life but should also focus on a broad range of support for those in retirement given that provision for the retired in many locales, across the study countries of focus - England, NW USA and Italy - seems weakly developed. While successful adaptation and contentment with new lifestyles and levels of social integration was widespread, many retirees were less satisfied, highlighting too few opportunities for social engagement and community life and a lack of basic information advice and guidance that might smooth what is potentially one of the most challenging life transitions individuals make. A desire for workshops, drop in centres, networks of support and other provision was widely expressed and described succinctly by one 59 year old Italian woman who spontaneously described what would have helped her transition: "There should be something for us pensioners they should give us a Guide for services for older or retired people. I would like something for those who are retiring, to help prepare for hobbies, or interests orientation courses, strategies to apply just before the transition to retirement. Yes, a guide to help us to psychologically and concretely prepare for retirement".
Exploitation Route Please see Toplines Findings Final Report 2017 (http://workandretirement.uk/) Policy and Practice Implications - Taking the Findings Forward
As populations across the developed world are ageing, core social institutions such as schools and colleges, workplaces and hospitals lag behind, ill designed to serve the population age profiles which are now emerging. Study findings have a range of policy and practice implications which a variety of stakeholders could take forward. Stakeholders in the workplace include employers, Trade Unions and organisations such as ACAS and CIPD with an interest in the health, wellbeing and satisfaction of employees. In relation to retirement transitions and outcomes, stakeholders include employers, local government and third sector organisations, including bodies such as the Big Lottery and Centre for Ageing Better. Key Government departments are also critical, influencing the policy context in which people work and retire, in particular: the Department for Work and Pensions, Department for Communities and Local Government; and the Department of Health.

Policy and practice implications of the findings are clustered under the following key sites:
• Labour market/ government policy
• The workplace/employers
• Local communities/third sector and local government
• Colleges/universities

Labour Market Policy
• Part-time working (I): Opportunities to reduce hours and work part-time have been promoted (and supported through legislation) partly in order to extend working life. Evidence suggests, however, that reduced hours opportunities are not a panacea and do not extend working lives in the aggregate. It is important, therefore, that other aspects of work and job quality are targeted to ensure working terms and conditions remain attractive later in life.
• Part-time working (II): While on average part-time employment may not extend working life, more widespread availability of flexible working may, however, undermine processes of marginalisation. Reduced hours or more flexible working arrangements are less widespread in male dominated occupations/industries and in many higher status jobs. In searching for flexibility later in life older workers may experience downward occupational mobility leading to underemployment in terms of skills - a loss to employers and national economic performance.
• Flexible Contracts: For those retiring to achieve greater freedom and time sovereignty, part-time opportunities may not be attractive as they are still seen as an unwelcome commitment of time. Interest in working later in life and indeed while retired is nevertheless widespread but zero hours type contracts would better meet the needs and preferences of many at this stage of life although there have been calls for an outright ban on zero hour contracts. Flexible contracts are widely used in the NHS in the form of bank staff working.

The Workplace
• Job Quality: With a secular decline in older workers' job satisfaction and organisational commitment, employers need to consider how to motivate staff later in life. Increasing demands, more intensified working environments and other aspects of job quality are associated with health related and voluntary early retirement decisions. Employers seeking to meet the challenges of ageing workforces, staff shortages and key skills gaps must therefore attend more closely to job quality issues in order to promote staff retention.
• Equality Frameworks: In contrast to deficit perspectives, which highlight older worker decline and diminished capacities, human development lifespan theories such as Selection, Optimization, and Compensation and Socioemotional Selectivity theory emphasise resilience. Policies and practices that enable workers to adapt over time include staff engagement and involvement opportunities, autonomy and control. By contrast, an emphasis on growth and continual development may run counter to older workers' goals and priorities, thereby undermining processes of adaptation. Employers therefore need to explicitly consider the principles of equality deployed in the workplace and to recognise that synchronous equality (i.e. ensuring continual comparison and identical performance assessment criteria regardless of age) may block processes of adaptation, compromise job sustainability and undermine employee wellbeing / satisfaction. An a-synchronous framework of support may be more responsive to the changing needs, priorities and abilities of employees across their working lives.
• Recruitment: Recruitment obstacles continue to represent a significant challenge for older workers. While liberal economies exhibit higher rates of mobility among the 50+ the significant increase in employment participation over the past 10 years has primarily been a retention phenomenon (with employees remaining in their long term jobs for longer rather than increasingly changing jobs later in life) and where older workers do find or change jobs, a large minority are effectively marginalised into lower status and lower paid roles. Downward mobility at older ages is not offset in our countries of study by gains in psychological wellbeing or job satisfaction; nor is there evidence of a reduction in the incidence of physically demanding roles although reduced job strain is evident. Taking these findings forward, there would appear to be a pressing need for more employers to recruit older workers into a wider range of occupations and industries. EWL measures have focussed primarily on the supply side - by means of welfare retrenchment, employment activation and delayed SPa, bolstered by abolition of the default retirement age and age discrimination legislation which protect employed older workers. The question therefore remains: what more can governments and employers do to promote the recruitment side of the equation to encourage more opportunities to gain or change jobs later in life without risking precarious later lives?
• Keep-in-touch Schemes. Employers also have a role to play in helping employees in their transition to retirement. Many on the cusp of retirement express anxieties and feel ill-prepared - more support could be offered to in relation to making plans and providing opportunities to maintain access to social or sporting facilities. Keep-in-touch schemes with retired workers, for example, could help retirees to preserve contact with old friends and colleagues, while at the same time providing employers with a link to experienced ex-employees who may in the future be interested in work on a casual or consultancy basis, or to provide temporary cover in response to staff absence.

Local Communities
• Supporting the Retirement Transition. More support is needed to help people in the transition to retirement both at the preparation and planning stage and in the early years as people seek to adjust to their new circumstances:

- Broader Retirement Courses. In advance of retirement, courses and advice typically focus on financial planning with little available to help people prepare and adjust emotionally and psychologically. There is a need for more information advice and guidance to help retirees during the life transition. One study respondent had attended a retirement course organised by her large public sector employer but, in common with others, found the focus of the event too narrow: "the retirement course was more about what they had to offer plus a bit of advice about finances, you know, and pensions and things like that. But other than that there was no, well what happens if you retire and you find your parents are ill, how are you going to run your time and how are you going to feel about that. There was nothing about, you know, maybe learning from other people's experience about feeling, you know, like you're losing a role and how are you going to manage that. There wasn't anything on that sort of emotional side of it, there was no discussions or place within that course for that which actually is quite important I think".

- Local Authority Health and Wellbeing Responsibilities. For retirees who encounter too few opportunities for social engagement and community life once retired, more could be done. In the UK Local authorities have designated responsibility for health and wellbeing, and therefore have a key role to play in providing good-quality sport and leisure facilities and ensuring that these are affordable and accessible. Austerity led cuts to local services, however, present a challenge to adequate provision.

- Retirement Welcome Wagon. Retirement welcome programmes, along the lines of the Welcome Wagon concept could also be introduced. The Welcome Wagon programme (which operates in Canada and USA) targets new residents who are contacted soon after they move and provided with information about local products, services, and retailers. This could be adapted for the newly retired to provide information about healthy lifestyle options, recreation facilities, local social events and activities, sports clubs, and other opportunities such as volunteering etc. Incentives might be offered, such as free trial periods and social benefits, such as meeting other people, emphasised. A parallel model might be Local Authority funded ante natal classes for pregnant women - these are designed to provide important health information and birthing skills but also, as a local community scheme, to introduce expectant mothers to each other who then often function as a longer term social support group once their babies are born and lifelong friendships can be formed. 'Introduction to Retirement' sessions might be similarly effective and of interest to some.

- Third Age Gaps. There are many schemes promoting healthy lifestyles and social integration around the country (although geographically uneven) but there is a key gap for the 50-65 age group and new retirees. Provision is currently more oriented toward the 4th Age and more support to grow self-help groups may be beneficial. In relation to social and physical activity one study participant noted, in relation to recent holiday in Iceland "things were set up so that older people could easily exercise outside of big apartment buildings, there was public accesses to equipment and they were almost always doing that and there were a lot of social things for exercise. You'd go to the parks and there would be a group of older people marching through the parks doing dancing and drumming and things like that and I don't think we have that in our society at all especially not for older people. I think they need to find ways to make exercising much more social for older people many of whom don't want to go into an athletic club with a bunch of people that are really buff and wearing tight little clothes".

- Employer led Social Clubs. For bridging the transition between work and retirement, there are employer-organised retirement clubs and activities to encourage social connectedness and physical wellbeing, and this is a model which more employers could be encouraged to follow.

- Nurturing Civil Society. In relation to processes of urban development and land ownership, local and central government needs to more carefully consider the needs of older members of society and how to design age friendly cities. Publicly available impact assessments are needed to transparently weigh competing interests and assess the effects of local gentrification, housing markets and movements of global capital on different sectors within local communities. International investments in communities can amount to 'hostile takeovers'. Communities need to actively engage in debates around how to transform modern public spaces to meet the needs of all social groups and promote a sense of belonging. Civil society (i.e. the activities and organisations that occupy the space between individuals, the state and businesses) needs to be nurtured. It includes voluntary groups and organisations but also, more generally, 'associational life that brings people together' with an emphasis on shared space, place, relationships and collective activity whether attending church, sports clubs, social groups or volunteering. As noted by Hunter and Longlands (2016:3) "civil society does not happen in a vacuum, it takes place in parks and backyards, libraries, in community centres, on the street [and] depends upon its ability to find and secure both space and time for its activities to take place." A sense of community will therefore be directly impacted by wider structural trends including changes in the availability of physical space and the 'hollowing out' of communities and shifts in their composition - both private and public sector services such as pubs, libraries and local post offices, which have traditionally acted as social hubs providing opportunities for informal social contact, have been closing down and facing funding cuts. Trends in the character and make-up of local highstreets are also relevant. Once vibrant and diverse social hubs, high streets are in decline with shopping moving out of town or online leaving behind charity shops, betting shops and chain stores devoid of character. Local libraries in particular could be reinvigorated to strengthen their role as community hubs by providing free WiFi access; 'retail-standard' environments; and provision of additional services and facilities such as coffee, classes, sofas and toilets.

• Healthy Lifestyle Interventions. In relation to healthy lifestyles, policies and interventions targeting people on the cusp of retirement for health interventions may be particularly effective because this life transition involves other behavioural changes associated with shifts in social networks, income, and time sovereignty. Such "moments of change" temporarily disrupt patterns of behaviour in everyday life and open the possibility of modifying habits before new routines become established. As such, it represents a key point in time when individuals may be more receptive to interventions. Our findings suggest that retirement may indeed present a window of opportunity for positive habit change as many study participants saw retirement as an opportunity for change, supporting habit discontinuity theory, whether due to the expectation of more time to take care of oneself or as a solution for poor health behaviours associated with their working lifestyle. Government's Active Ageing and Healthy Ageing campaigns (DH, 2010) and measures to improve health among younger older people (EuroHealthNet, 2012) can build on this momentum.

Colleges and Universities
• Lifelong Learning. Of particular concern is that despite widespread lip service paid to the importance of lifelong learning, in practice this is a notable policy weakness. Significantly more needs to be done to enable individuals to consider their careers over a longer time span with institutionalised support to change career, retrain and learn new skills confident in future employment opportunities. Affordability is key. Government investment in adult learning has continued to fall over the past 5-10 years and with dramatic increases in the cost of HE, there are far fewer older and part-time university entrants given the financial risk.
Sectors Education,Leisure Activities, including Sports, Recreation and Tourism,Other
URL http://workandretirement.uk/
 
Description Early findings disseminated at: the Trading Times event: 'The Age of No Retirement?' and with The Age and Employment Network
First Year Of Impact 2014
Sector Other
Impact Types Policy & public services
 
Description Independent Review of the State Pension Age (Department of Work and Pensions)
Geographic Reach National 
Policy Influence Type Contribution to a national consultation/review
Impact Based on emergent study findings, a tailored research report was written specifically to feed into the Cridland Review. A wide range of evidence was presented, culminating in the recommendation that a more flexible approach to State Pension age be implemented given increases toward and beyond age 68 for both men and women. This is one among a number of sources of evidence the Review will draw upon. The extent to which this study and it's recommendations have influenced the direction of travel of government policy / regulation will initially be revealed on the 23rd March 2017 at a Final Report Stakeholder Event (to which the PI, as a Review contributor, has been invited).
 
Description CfAB Research Project
Amount £85,000 (GBP)
Organisation Centre for Ageing Better 
Sector Charity/Non Profit
Country United Kingdom
Start 08/2017 
End 02/2018
 
Description Blog: Motivation on the slide for older managers and professional employees 
Form Of Engagement Activity Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact A PSI blog to disseminate research findings more widely than academic audiences
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016
URL http://www.psi.org.uk/site/news_article/motivation_on_the_slide_for_older_managers_and_professional_...
 
Description Blog: Older workers: kept in but not kept happy 
Form Of Engagement Activity Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact A PSI website blog, summary dissemination of study findings beyond academic audiences
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2015
URL http://www.psi.org.uk/site/blog_index/1822
 
Description Declining job satisfaction, extending working life (EWL) and the 'new capitalism'. Presenter: Deborah Smeaton. GSA Annual Scientific Meeting, 2016, November 16-20. New Lens on Ageing: Changing Attitudes, Expanding Possibilities 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Professional Practitioners
Results and Impact Aim: to disseminate study findings to a wide and multi-disciplinary audience. Provoked considerable discussion and many questions from an international audience of policymakers, academics, gerontologists and health practitioners.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016
 
Description Does retirement offer a 'window of opportunity' for healthy lifestyle change? Views from workers on the cusp of retirement. Presenter: Deborah Smeaton 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact Gerontological Society of America: Annual Scientific Meeting. November 2015. Symposium: Anticipating the retirement experience: a cross cultural perspective. 4 papers presented. Provoked considerable discussion and questions from an international audience of policymakers, academics and health practitioners.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2015
 
Description Does the option of continued work lead to a more optimistic view of retirement? Presenter: Kevin. E. Cahill 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact Gerontological Society of America: Annual Scientific Meeting. November 2015. Symposium: Anticipating the retirement experience: a cross cultural perspective. 4 papers presented: Provoked considerable discussion and many questions from an international audience of policymakers, academics, gerontologists and health practitioners.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2015
 
Description Hours Flexibility and Retirement Age. Presenter: Jürgen Bauknecht, Moritz Hess & Sebastian Pink: ESA Research Network on Ageing in Europe. 2016 Mid-term Conference "Ageing in Europe: Beyond the Work Centred Life Course?" September 14-16, Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact Aim: to disseminate study findings to a wide and multi-disciplinary audience. Provoked considerable discussion and many questions from an international audience of policymakers, academics, gerontologists and health practitioners.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016
 
Description IAGG-ER 8th Congress, Dublin 2015, 23-26 April. Symposium: Political answers to demographic questions in different welfare regimes: Delaying labour market exit" Deborah Smeaton: Policy developments in the UK to raise older workers´ labour force participation - a multi-stranded approach 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Professional Practitioners
Results and Impact Conference presentation which generated significant interest in the study, questions and discussion from an international audience
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2014,2015
 
Description Is Bridge Job Activity Overstated? Presenter Kevin Cahill 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact Allied Social Sciences/American Economics Association (ASSA/AEA) January 2nd-3rd 2016 meetings in San Francisco. Provoked considerable discussion and many questions from an international audience of policymakers, academics, gerontologists and health practitioners.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016
 
Description Is retirement a 'window of opportunity' for lifestyle change? A Blog 
Form Of Engagement Activity Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact Aim: to disseminate study findings as widely as possible to a diverse international audience.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2017
URL http://www.psi.org.uk/site/blog_index/is_retirement_a_window_of_opportunity_for_lifestyle_change
 
Description Media dissemination 
Form Of Engagement Activity A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact Media disseminantion to draw attention to the overall aims and objectives of the study
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2014
URL https://www.timeshighereducation.com/news/grant-winners-13-february-2014/2011192.article
 
Description Older executives' job attitudes are on the slide: Evidence from Britain - an article discussing study findings, appearing in the 'Work in Progress' website section of the American Sociological Association 
Form Of Engagement Activity A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact The American Sociological Association requested an interview and permission to summarise findings from the study for their website
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016,2017
URL http://wp.me/p2Obbg-14t
 
Description Plans for the future after retirement: typologies of active ageing in Italy. Presenter: Sara Santini. Italian Society of Gerontology and Geriatric Congress. Napoli, 27.11.15 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Professional Practitioners
Results and Impact Aim: to disseminate study findings to a wide and multi-disciplinary audience. Provoked considerable discussion and many questions from an international audience of policymakers, academics, gerontologists and health practitioners.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2015
 
Description Promoting the project 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact The Age Action Alliance is a high profile network for partnership working and practical action to improve older people's lives. AAA invited us to describe our project and early findings. Generated a lot of interest and discussion around the lessons and inspiration that can be learned from international studies and how retirement is lived and experienced in other countries. Discussion of the constraints and opportunities for living life well.

AAA are keen to maintain contact and receive updates as the project progresses.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2015
 
Description Putting work in its place? Rebalancing labour market activities, leisure, family life and voluntary work after retirement. Presenter: Helen Barnes. ESA Research Network on Ageing in Europe. 2016 Mid-term Conference "Ageing in Europe: Beyond the Work Centred Life Course?" September 14-16, Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact Aim: to disseminate study findings to a wide and multi-disciplinary audience. Provoked considerable discussion and many questions from an international audience of policymakers, academics, gerontologists and health practitioners.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016
 
Description Submission to the Cridland Review - Independent State Pension age Review 
Form Of Engagement Activity A formal working group, expert panel or dialogue
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact Invited to the DWP Senior Representative Stakeholder Consultation event - Independent State Pension age Review (30/03/16) and contributed a paper for consideration (14/04/16):
Smeaton, D (2016) Voluntary retirement motivations and views on changes to State Pension age: Contribution to the independent State Pension age review
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016
URL https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/559943/independent-review-...
 
Description The PSI Blog: Is retirement a 'window of opportunity' for lifestyle change? 
Form Of Engagement Activity Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact A blog promoting findings to disseminate the project as widely as possible
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2017
URL http://www.psi.org.uk/site/blog_index/is_retirement_a_window_of_opportunity_for_lifestyle_change
 
Description The anticipation of retirement in Italy, UK and US: expectations and plans. Presenter: Andrea Principi 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact Gerontological Society of America: Annual Scientific Meeting. November 2015. Symposium: Anticipating the retirement experience: a cross cultural perspective. 4 papers presented: Provoked considerable discussion and many questions from an international audience of policymakers, academics, gerontologists and health practitioners.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2014,2015
 
Description The policies for the extension of working life in Italy between lights and shadows. Presenter - Andrea Principi 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact IAGG-ER 8th Congress 23-26 April 2015 (International Association of Gerontology and Geriatrics). Dublin. Symposium: "Political Answers to demographic questions in different welfare regimes - Delaying labour market exit". 3 papers presented. Provoked considerable discussion and questions from an international audience of policymakers, health practitioners and academics.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2015
 
Description The retirement experience: a cross cultural perspective. Presenter: Deborah Smeaton 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact Gerontological Society of America: Annual Scientific Meeting. November 2015. Symposium: Anticipating the retirement experience: a cross cultural perspective. 4 papers presented. Provoked considerable discussion and many questions from an international audience of health practitioners, policymakers and academics.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2015
 
Description To What Extent is Gradual Retirement a Product of Financial Necessity? Presenter - K.E. Cahill; M.D. Giandrea; J. Quinn 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Other audiences
Results and Impact Gerontological Society of America: Annual Scientific Meeting. November 2015. Symposium: Muddling Through Retirement: Understanding How Households Deal With Inadequate Retirement Income. Provoked considerable discussion and many questions from an international audience of policymakers, academics, gerontologists and health practitioners.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2015
 
Description • Germany`s attempt to raise the employment rates of older workers and to prolong working lives -to understand better German retirement behaviour, attitudes and policies. Presenter - Gerd Naegele 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact IAGG-ER 8th Congress 23-26 April 2015 (International Association of Gerontology and Geriatrics). Dublin. Symposium: "Political Answers to demographic questions in different welfare regimes - Delaying labour market exit". 3 papers presented. The presentation provoked considerable discussion and many questions among an audience of over 100.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2010,2015