Lexicon development in bilingual toddler
Lead Research Organisation:
Plymouth University
Department Name: Sch of Psychology
Abstract
Bilingualism, not monolingualism, is the global norm (UNESCO, 2003). We have a good understanding of how the minds of adult bilinguals store words in their two languages: for example, we know that a proficient French-English bilingual, when hearing the English word 'dog', unconsciously inhibits its French equivalent, 'chien'. However, there is little known about how the words are organised in the mind of a young bilingual. This is not a trivial problem as even monolingual children's mental processing of words is different from that of adults.
Understanding how bilingual children deal with words has important implications for assessment of their language learning abilities. Bilinguals tend to have delays in critical stages of language development, which can lead to over-referral for Speech and Language Therapy. The opposite problem is also prevalent, under-referral on the basis that some delay, relative to monolinguals, is expected. Such failings in the assessment system are costly for society in the short-term and the long-term, as a child with undetected language problems will struggle academically and socially.
The absence of bilingual-specific tools for language assessment can be attributed to (1) lack of knowledge about the architecture of the developing bilingual lexicon (2) the multiple social and linguistic influences on bilingual language development, which are poorly understood, particularly in combination. For example, we know that the linguistic distance between the languages being learnt is very important, but we don't have tools to measure linguistic distance in children.
Here we propose to produce a new computer-based model of the developing bilingual lexicon, based on experimental data, that will provide (1) significant advances in our theoretical understanding of bilingualism, and (2) pave the road for the development of a universal tool for the assessment of young bilinguals' language development.
This project is organised in three streams: two three-year data-collection streams and a final-year modelling stream. Children will be aged 18 months, which usually marks the onset of a sharp increase in vocabulary development.
In the first data-collection stream, we will run a series of experiments examining the organisation of words in bilingual infants. In collaboration with the Oxford Babylab, pairs of spoken words related or unrelated in meaning ('chien'-'pig' or 'chien'-'boat') will be presented accompanied by appropriate pictures. Children's looking times for pictures associated with related versus unrelated pairs will inform us about the strength of connections between words.
In the second data-collection stream, we aim to measure the interactions between the external factors influencing vocabulary development in bilinguals. Two hundred and fifty bilingual toddlers will be assessed in five different sites in the UK (Plymouth, Bangor, Birmingham, Kent and Liverpool) to get a large range of specifics in terms of language background and socioeconomic status. Infants' amount and mode of exposure to their two languages will be checked through appropriate questionnaires. Their level of vocabulary in English and the additional language will be evaluated through language-specific MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories (CDI), vocabulary questionnaires with versions for 60 languages. The data from the CDIs will help us to design child-adjusted metrics of distance between the two languages being learned.
In the final, modelling stream, the findings from the previous data-collection streams will be used to create a computational model of bilingual lexicon development, which will be able to predict language development in toddlers in different social and linguistic environments.
This project will considerably advance our understanding of language processing in young bilinguals, and prepare the ground for the design of a universal language assessment tool for this currently overlooked population.
Understanding how bilingual children deal with words has important implications for assessment of their language learning abilities. Bilinguals tend to have delays in critical stages of language development, which can lead to over-referral for Speech and Language Therapy. The opposite problem is also prevalent, under-referral on the basis that some delay, relative to monolinguals, is expected. Such failings in the assessment system are costly for society in the short-term and the long-term, as a child with undetected language problems will struggle academically and socially.
The absence of bilingual-specific tools for language assessment can be attributed to (1) lack of knowledge about the architecture of the developing bilingual lexicon (2) the multiple social and linguistic influences on bilingual language development, which are poorly understood, particularly in combination. For example, we know that the linguistic distance between the languages being learnt is very important, but we don't have tools to measure linguistic distance in children.
Here we propose to produce a new computer-based model of the developing bilingual lexicon, based on experimental data, that will provide (1) significant advances in our theoretical understanding of bilingualism, and (2) pave the road for the development of a universal tool for the assessment of young bilinguals' language development.
This project is organised in three streams: two three-year data-collection streams and a final-year modelling stream. Children will be aged 18 months, which usually marks the onset of a sharp increase in vocabulary development.
In the first data-collection stream, we will run a series of experiments examining the organisation of words in bilingual infants. In collaboration with the Oxford Babylab, pairs of spoken words related or unrelated in meaning ('chien'-'pig' or 'chien'-'boat') will be presented accompanied by appropriate pictures. Children's looking times for pictures associated with related versus unrelated pairs will inform us about the strength of connections between words.
In the second data-collection stream, we aim to measure the interactions between the external factors influencing vocabulary development in bilinguals. Two hundred and fifty bilingual toddlers will be assessed in five different sites in the UK (Plymouth, Bangor, Birmingham, Kent and Liverpool) to get a large range of specifics in terms of language background and socioeconomic status. Infants' amount and mode of exposure to their two languages will be checked through appropriate questionnaires. Their level of vocabulary in English and the additional language will be evaluated through language-specific MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories (CDI), vocabulary questionnaires with versions for 60 languages. The data from the CDIs will help us to design child-adjusted metrics of distance between the two languages being learned.
In the final, modelling stream, the findings from the previous data-collection streams will be used to create a computational model of bilingual lexicon development, which will be able to predict language development in toddlers in different social and linguistic environments.
This project will considerably advance our understanding of language processing in young bilinguals, and prepare the ground for the design of a universal language assessment tool for this currently overlooked population.
Planned Impact
Fighting inequalities and ensuring equal access to health care is at the heart of the UK government policy (Health and Social Care Act 2012). However, at present health care practitioners lack the tools to effectively screen the (growing) population of bilingual children in their two languages for early language delays (Kohnert, 2010). The detection of these delays, allowing the provision of adequate care is of vital importance for the social, emotional and cognitive development of children (Snowling et al., 2002). The research plan of this project have been specifically tailored towards the provision of the empirical and modelling data that would be required for the construction of the first universal vocabulary assessment tool for young bilinguals (VATB).
Who will benefit from this research?
There are estimated to be around 105,400 multilingual 2-year-olds in England (extrapolated from UK National Statistics sources and the 2010 School Census, Department for Education), of whom 7-15% (the same proportion as monolinguals) can be expected to experience a delay in language acquisition due to pervasive developmental disorders (including autism), sensory or specific language impairment (SLI). Unfortunately these children are currently at significant risk of misdiagnosis and under referral, with Crutchley (2000) finding that a far larger proportion of the bilingual parents (45%) stated that professionals had initially failed to diagnose their child's difficulties or take note of their worries than did the monolingual parents (18%).
In theory, recommendations by the Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists (RCSLT, 1998) and the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA, 1999) are that bilingual pre-schoolers should be screened in their two languages. However, children's assessment in their Additional Language (AL) can be challenging as a great many languages lack standardised tests, and even if such a test does exist the monolingual norms cannot be directly applied to bilingual children as they usually underperform monolinguals (Hoff et al., 2012). Even use of interpreters is problematic as translation styles may vary from the general to the literal word-for-word (Stow & Dodd, 2003). Parental assessment (Paradis et al., 2010) suffers from variability in parental opinion or experience, and the highly promising dynamic assessment (Gutiérrez-Clellen & Pena, 2001) requires a significant experience and knowledge (Kohnert, 2010), making it unsuitable for wider screening applications at 18 months.
How will they benefit from this research?
Providing SLTs and health care professionals with a flexible, easy-to-use and reliable tool to evaluate vocabulary of 18-month-old bilingual toddlers will introduce a massive change in the access to care for the bilingual populations. The VATB would be implemented as a user-friendly computerised interface, allowing health care professionals (health visitors, crèche assistants) to enter a wide range of information about the child together with her results at English and Additional Language vocabulary tests. This would allow them to make an informed decision regarding the child's need for a referral from as early as 18 months, without unnecessarily increasing SLTs' waiting lists (which can be up to 24 months in the UK). This first assessment would be done at an age where a 'watch-and-see' approach (Paul, 1996) would be very appropriate and not cost-effective to prepare for a later intervention. The principles of the VATB could set a benchmark for all countries in need of a tool for bilingual children screening.
Who will benefit from this research?
There are estimated to be around 105,400 multilingual 2-year-olds in England (extrapolated from UK National Statistics sources and the 2010 School Census, Department for Education), of whom 7-15% (the same proportion as monolinguals) can be expected to experience a delay in language acquisition due to pervasive developmental disorders (including autism), sensory or specific language impairment (SLI). Unfortunately these children are currently at significant risk of misdiagnosis and under referral, with Crutchley (2000) finding that a far larger proportion of the bilingual parents (45%) stated that professionals had initially failed to diagnose their child's difficulties or take note of their worries than did the monolingual parents (18%).
In theory, recommendations by the Royal College of Speech and Language Therapists (RCSLT, 1998) and the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA, 1999) are that bilingual pre-schoolers should be screened in their two languages. However, children's assessment in their Additional Language (AL) can be challenging as a great many languages lack standardised tests, and even if such a test does exist the monolingual norms cannot be directly applied to bilingual children as they usually underperform monolinguals (Hoff et al., 2012). Even use of interpreters is problematic as translation styles may vary from the general to the literal word-for-word (Stow & Dodd, 2003). Parental assessment (Paradis et al., 2010) suffers from variability in parental opinion or experience, and the highly promising dynamic assessment (Gutiérrez-Clellen & Pena, 2001) requires a significant experience and knowledge (Kohnert, 2010), making it unsuitable for wider screening applications at 18 months.
How will they benefit from this research?
Providing SLTs and health care professionals with a flexible, easy-to-use and reliable tool to evaluate vocabulary of 18-month-old bilingual toddlers will introduce a massive change in the access to care for the bilingual populations. The VATB would be implemented as a user-friendly computerised interface, allowing health care professionals (health visitors, crèche assistants) to enter a wide range of information about the child together with her results at English and Additional Language vocabulary tests. This would allow them to make an informed decision regarding the child's need for a referral from as early as 18 months, without unnecessarily increasing SLTs' waiting lists (which can be up to 24 months in the UK). This first assessment would be done at an age where a 'watch-and-see' approach (Paul, 1996) would be very appropriate and not cost-effective to prepare for a later intervention. The principles of the VATB could set a benchmark for all countries in need of a tool for bilingual children screening.
Organisations
Publications
Cattani A
(2014)
How much exposure to English is necessary for a bilingual toddler to perform like a monolingual peer in language tests?
in International journal of language & communication disorders
Delle Luche C
(2015)
A methodological investigation of the Intermodal Preferential Looking paradigm: Methods of analyses, picture selection and data rejection criteria.
in Infant behavior & development
Floccia C
(2018)
IV: RESULTS FOR STUDIES 2 AND 3: THE UKBTAT MODEL AND ITS APPLICATION TO NONTARGET ADDITIONAL LANGUAGE LEARNERS.
in Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development
Floccia C
(2018)
I: INTRODUCTION.
in Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development
Floccia C
(2018)
V: GENERAL DISCUSSION.
in Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development
Floccia C
(2020)
Translation equivalent and cross-language semantic priming in bilingual toddlers
in Journal of Memory and Language
Floccia C
(2018)
III: ANALYSES AND RESULTS FOR STUDY 1: ESTIMATING THE EFFECT OF LINGUISTIC DISTANCE ON VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT.
in Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development
Floccia C
(2018)
II: METHODS.
in Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development
Hoff E
(2018)
ADVANCES IN THE ASSESSMENT OF YOUNG BILINGUALS: COMMENTS ON FLOCCIA ET AL.
in Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development
Description | First, we have collected a rich database regarding language development of a large cohort of bilingual 2-year-old toddlers in the UK (N=430) who learn English and an Additional Language. We have identified the main predictors of vocabulary knowledge at this age and for this cohort: the amount of exposure to each language, the proportion of English in overheard speech, gender and to a lesser extent, linguistic distance between the two languages (as defined by overlap between words). We have built statistical models that that can now allow us to predict the vocabulary outcome of any new bilingual toddler being assessed with our newly designed took, the UKBTAT. This tool is now freely available to early years professionals or researchers to get an informed estimation as to whether young patients are at risk of a language delay or not (www.psy.plymouth.ac.uk/UKBTAT). We have demonstrated the feasibility of a universal approach to assessing language development in bilingual toddlers (that is, taking into account any pair of languages), and provided a practical solution to a critical problem: disentangling the "bilingual delay" from a genuine language delay. Second, in a series of priming experiments, we have investigated the links between words across languages in bilingual toddlers, and a paper has been published Finally, we have developed a computational (deep learning) model of the early bilingual lexicon which allows us to evaluate the role of linguistic distance in vocabulary growth, and make predictions about interactions between languages. |
Exploitation Route | We have built up the assessment tool, the UKBTAT, which was made possible thanks to the funding for the original data collection. we have initiated dissemination of this outcome to early years professionals and researchers through professional bodies, hoping that this will make a critical contribution in providing early assessment of possible language delays in the growing population of bilingual children, early enough for an efficient intervention to be considered. |
Sectors | Communities and Social Services/Policy Healthcare |
URL | http://www.psy.plymouth.ac.uk/UKBTAT/ |
Description | On the 22nd of February 2018, we have released the UKBTAT platform (www.psy.plymouth.ac.uk/UKBTAT/) which is a free access platform for practitioners in the UK, who need to assess language development in bilingual toddlers. This tool is based on data collected through the grant on a large cohort of children. At the time of writing, more than 300 practitioners have signed up so far: SLTs, educational psychologists and nursery staff mostly. In 2019 we have trained early years professionals in selected councils in England. As a follow up of this project, I have also secured a new grant (GCRF/ESRC) with Prof Ghada Khattab at Newcastle University as PI. One aim of this project is to apply the UKBTAT approach to the case of Lebanon where most children grow up with two or three languages. |
First Year Of Impact | 2018 |
Sector | Communities and Social Services/Policy,Education |
Impact Types | Societal Policy & public services |
Description | A talk at the University of Paris |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
Results and Impact | Invitation to deliver a talk at the University of Paris, Integrative Neuroscience and Cognition Center (INCC), UMR 8002, Language and Cognition Team |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
Description | Bilingualism |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
Results and Impact | Promoted exchanges with postgrads and staff in this Saudi University. Some interests from Saudi students to start PhDs in Plymouth. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2013 |
Description | Front page of the Royal College of Speech and Language Therapy Bulletin, aimed at clinicians, January 2016 |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Professional Practitioners |
Results and Impact | Not known yet. None yet (it just happened). |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2015 |
Description | Linguistically gifted children: Pre-schoolers are talented linguists |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Questions from parents concerned with bilingualism in this big city of Saudi Arabia. Raised awareness of issues related to bilingualism. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2012 |
Description | Not only amount of exposure but also linguistic distance to English affects the word learning of bilingual toddlers |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Professional Practitioners |
Results and Impact | This was an invited conference for Allegra Cattani at the Cross-Linguistic Lexical Tasks (CLT) workshop in Bratislava, Slovak, 7-9 December. Allegra presented our research on bilingualism to an audience of future and current Speech and Language Therapists. Raising awareness of the issues and the solutions for bilingual language assessment. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2015 |
Description | Poster 2 at ICIS |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Other audiences |
Results and Impact | Floccia, C., Kwok, R., Delle Luche, C., Chow, J., Horvath, K., Cattani, A., Goslin, J., White, L., & Plunkett, K. (2016). Linguistic distance and semantic priming in 24- to 27-month-old bilingual children. Poster to be presented at the 2016 Biennial International Conference on Infant Studies, New Orleans. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2016 |
Description | Poster ar ICIS |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Other audiences |
Results and Impact | Delle Luche, C., Kwok, R., Durrant, S., Chow, J., Horvath, K., Cannati, A., Abbot-Smith, K., Krott., A., Mills, D., Plunkett, K., Rowland, C., & Floccia, C. (2016). It's a big world: Understanding the factors guiding early vocabulary development in bilinguals. Poster presented at the 2016 Biennial International Conference on Infant Studies, New Orleans. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2016 |
Description | Press release for bilingual families recruitment |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | Regional |
Primary Audience | Participants in your research and patient groups |
Results and Impact | Western Morning News - Keeping languages alive 17/05/2015 Families signing up. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2015 |
URL | http://www.westernmorningnews.co.uk/Keeping-languages-alive/story-26509960-detail/story.html |
Description | Press release for bilingual families recruitment |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | Regional |
Primary Audience | Participants in your research and patient groups |
Results and Impact | Western Morning News - Research team seeks 250 bilingual toddlers 13/03/2014 http://www.westernmorningnews.co.uk/Research-team-seeks-250-bilingual-toddlers/story-20805416-detail/story.html#ixzz2wPP9I3Vi Recruitment of bilingual families, raising awareness. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2014 |
URL | http://www.westernmorningnews.co.uk/Research-team-seeks-250-bilingual-toddlers/story-20805416-detail... |
Description | Press release for bilingual families recruitment |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | Local |
Primary Audience | Participants in your research and patient groups |
Results and Impact | Plymouth Herald - Babylab helps young to mind their language 18/05/2015 ; promote awareness of our research activities. Families signing up. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2015 |
URL | http://www.plymouthherald.co.uk/Plymouth-University-s-Babylab-proves-language/story-26480284-detail/... |
Description | Press release in a local newspaper to recruit families |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | Local |
Primary Audience | Participants in your research and patient groups |
Results and Impact | Plymouth Magazine - "Toddlers attempting the impossible!" 2/06/2014 ; recruitment of families for Babylab research. More families signed up. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2014 |
Description | Press release in national magazine for outreaching |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Media (as a channel to the public) |
Results and Impact | Advice to parents - we were listed amongst other advices given by other babylabs in the country. To be published in January 2016. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2015 |
URL | https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-29/january-2016/psychologist-guide-you-and-your-baby |
Description | Radio interview about the project - Kirsten Abbot Smith, 19/03/14, KMFM |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | Regional |
Primary Audience | Media (as a channel to the public) |
Results and Impact | More participants joined in to the study and spread the word. Increase in participation numbers |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2014 |
Description | Symposium Lyon |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Other audiences |
Results and Impact | Delle Luche, C., Kwok, R., Durrant, S., Chow, J., Plunkett, K., & Floccia, C. (2017). The organisation of the bilingual lexicon: the impact of linguistic distance on semantic activation. As part of the symposium entitled "How do children build their early lexicon? Evidence from monolingual and bilingual toddlers.", chaired by Delle Luche. IASCL, Lyon, France, July. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2017 |
Description | Talk at the MPI |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
Results and Impact | Invited talk at the Max Plank Institute for Psycholinguistics in Nijmegen, the Netherlands, 11/12/2018. Title: Language distance and the early bilingual lexicon. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
Description | press release fo the UKBTAT on the University of Birmingham website |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Media (as a channel to the public) |
Results and Impact | Press release coordinated across the universities involved in the project |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
URL | https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/news/latest/2018/02/bilingual-children-research-university-birmingham.a... |
Description | press release fo the UKBTAT on the University of Kent website |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Media (as a channel to the public) |
Results and Impact | coordinated press release |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
URL | https://www.kent.ac.uk/news/society/17034/psychologist-helps-develop-language-development-tool-for-b... |
Description | press release fo the UKBTAT on the University of Liverpool website |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Media (as a channel to the public) |
Results and Impact | coordinated press release |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
URL | https://news.liverpool.ac.uk/2018/02/22/study-proposes-practical-solution-challenges-faced-bilingual... |
Description | press release fo the UKBTAT on the University of Plymouth website |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Media (as a channel to the public) |
Results and Impact | coordinated press release |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
URL | https://www.plymouth.ac.uk/news/study-proposes-practical-solution-to-challenges-faced-by-bilingual-c... |
Description | press release on a Chinese website |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | This website used our press release and translated it in Chinese. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
URL | http://www.funinusa.net/article-182445-1.html |
Description | press release on a Spanish website |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | this website used our press release and translated it to Spanish. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
URL | https://www.datoanuncios.org/?a=58669 |
Description | press release on a research news website in the UAE |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | This website used our press release to talk about the UKBTAT |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
URL | https://www.dotemirates.com/en/details/104440230?from=dot |
Description | press release on the University of Essex website |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Media (as a channel to the public) |
Results and Impact | coordinated press release |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
URL | https://www.essex.ac.uk/news/2018/02/22/study-proposes-practical-solution-to-challenges-faced-by-bil... |