Integrated Model of Recycling and Disposal of Lithium-ion Batteries (IMRAD)

There is a massive number of batteries entering the market. Due to the value of the materials contained within spent LIBs and the volume of waste the UK is predicted to have in the coming years, the most economical and environmentally friendly option is to recycle them. Life cycle assessment and material flow accounts of spend batteries will help to determine the optimal options. This is even more important as in 2022 is the first ever increase in LIB pack prices since records began in 2010. This is primarily due to rising raw material and battery component prices and soaring inflation. The development of the recycling processes in the last decade has led to a sharp increase in the purity of materials recovered which will reduce the reliance on raw materials, alleviating some of the material criticality issues. The three recycling processes which are most advanced are pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical and direct recycling (Rajaeifar et al., 2021). Unfortunately, even in the most advanced technologies there are issues with insufficient recycling efficiencies and significant environmental impacts (Harper et al., 2019). The project will assess the recycling technologies and show where the second life and recycling of these materials can end up (Baars 2021), it will calculate the materials that can be recovered by which company/process globally (Summerville 2021) and show where to place recycling facilities (Lander 2021). All of this will be done in a mathematical robust manner using python programming so that users can very input variables and illustrate the intended and unintended consequences of the decision making.

Baars, J., Domenech, T., Bleischwitz, R., Melin, H.E. and Heidrich, O. (2021) 'Circular economy strategies for electric vehicle batteries reduce reliance on raw materials', Nature Sustainability 4(1), pp71-79/
Land, L., Cleaver, T., Rajaeifar, M.A., Nguyen-Tien, V., Elliott, R.J., Heidrich, I., Kendrick, E., Edge, J.S., Offer, G. Financial viability of electric vehicle lithium-ion battery recycling. Iscience 2021, 24, 102787.
Rajaeifar, A.M. et al 2021. Life cycle assessment of lithium ion battery recycling using pyrometallurgical technologies. Journey of Industrial Ecology.
Sommerville, R., Zhu, P., Rajaeifar, M.A., Heidrich, O., Goodship, V. and Kendrick, E. (2021) 'A qualitative assessment of lithium ion battery recycling processes', Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 165, p.105219

This CDT will produce power electronics specialists with industrial experience, and will equip them with key skills that are essential to meet the future power electronics challenges. They will be highly employable due to their training being embedded in industrial challenges with the potential to become future leaders through parallel entrepreneurial and business acumen training. As such, they will drive the UK forward in electric propulsion development and manufacturing. They will become ambassadors for cross-disciplinary thinking in electric propulsion and mentors to their colleagues. With its strong industrial partnership, this CDT is ideally placed to produce high impact research papers, patents and spin-outs, with support from the University's dedicated business development teams. All of this will contribute to the 10% year upon year growth of the power electronics sector in the UK, creating more jobs and added value to the UK economy.

Alongside the clear benefits to the economy this CDT will sustain and enhance the UK as a hub of expertise in this rapidly increasing area. UK R&D is set to shift dramatically to electrical technologies due to, amongst other reasons, the target to ban petrol/ diesel propulsion by 2040. Whilst the increase in R&D is welcome this target will be unsustainable without the right people to support the development of alternative technologies. This CDT will directly answer this skills shortage enabling the UK to not only meet these targets but lead the way internationally in the propulsion revolution.

Industry and policy stakeholders will benefit through-
a) Providing challenges for the students to work through

b) Knowledge exchange with the students and the academics

c) New lines of investigation/ revenue/ process improvement

d) Two way access to skills/ equipment and training

e) A skilled, challenge focused workforce


Society will benefit through-
a) Propulsion systems that are more efficient and require therefore less energy reducing cost of travel

b) Engineers with new skillsets working more cost-effective and more productive

c) Skilled workforce who are mindful considering the environmental and ethical impact

d) Graduates that understand equality, diversity and inclusion


Environment will benefit through-
a) Emission free cars powered by clean renewable energy increasing air quality and reducing global warming

b) Highly efficient planes reducing the amount of oil and therefore oil explorations in ecological sensitive areas such as the arctic can be slowed down, allowing sufficient time for the development of new alternative environmental friendly fuels.

c) Significant noise reduction leading to quiet cities and airports