Role of dimethyl sulphide (DMS) in pelagic tritrophic interactions

The oceans contain only about 1.5% of terrestrial biomass. However, they provide a similar amount of total annual production to that on land and the turnover time for organic matter is 1000-times faster in marine in comparison to terrestrial ecosystems. This highlights that grazing by zooplankton is disproportionally important and competition among grazers is high. It is not surprising that phytoplankton have evolved mechanisms to protect themselves from grazers. These include morphological defences such as grazing-resistant shells, for example in 'armoured' dinoflagellates, and chemical defences such as sophisticated chemical deterrence that influence the selectivity of grazers. Over the years we have accumulated a good understanding of the role of chemical defences in the bitrophic interactions between predators and their prey. However, it is also well known that land plants use another cunning defence strategy that involves the production of volatile signalling compounds (so called infochemicals) that attract the enemy of their predators. This in turn reduces the number of herbivores and releases the plants from excessive grazing pressure. Surprisingly, such infochemical-mediated tritrophic interactions have not been documented for oceanic plankton and our proposed research will rectify this shortcoming. We will focus our activities on one particular marine volatile: dimethyl sulphide (DMS). This compound is probably the best-studied of all marine trace gases, because much interest in DMS research concerns its role in regulating climate. We are starting to appreciate that DMS also has ecological importance and find that many organisms can use plumes of DMS as directional cue for their orientation. For example, some sea birds use DMS to locate areas of high food density. Recently, we also found that zooplankton copepods react to DMS gradients. Copepods are dominant consumers of microzooplankton protists (unicellular ciliates and flagellates) that are important grazers of many small phytoplankton species. In biogeochemical terms ciliates account for, on average, 30 % of the carbon consumed by copepods, representing approximately 5 % of total oceanic primary production and 100 fold the annual fisheries catch (~ 100 Mt yr-1 live weight) in carbon terms. However, these estimates may be considerably higher if other components of the microzooplankton, in particular dinoflagellates, are included. Interestingly, grazing by microzooplankton can result in a dramatic increase of DMS production and this is dependent on the ability of the phytoplankton to make this gas. Hence, phytoplankton may actively influence the 'smelliness' of their predators and this likely makes their enemies more susceptible to copepod attack. It is then not surprising that many of the DMS-producing phytoplankton species are competing successfully and can produce algal blooms that are large enough to be seen from space (for example the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi) or can be harmful to other organisms (for example toxic dinoflagellates). Our project will use laboratory experiments where we will quantify grazing of microzooplankton and copepods in relationship to the ability of phytoplankton to make DMS. These data will enable a first assessment of grazing-induced production of DMS in a tritrophic framework. We will also conduct field experiments with freshly collected plankton to verify our laboratory results with data from coccolithophore-dominated waters off Plymouth and in the North-East Atlantic. Our data will inform modelling efforts that aim to predict the effect of differential production of DMS on the susceptibility of microzooplankton to copepod grazing and the fecundity of copepods. This part of our project will be realised through a tied PhD studentship.