Prosperity and Innovation in the Past and Future of Agriculture in Eastern Africa (PIPFA)

Lead Research Organisation: University College London
Department Name: UCL Institute for Global Prosperity

Abstract

Despite the fact that approximately 85% of total agricultural output across the African continent is produced by small-holder farmers, with the small-holder farming sub-sector accounting for 75% of Kenya's total agricultural output, there remains a persistent imagining amongst some academics, policy makers and NGOs that African farming practices are static, inefficient and inherently vulnerable in the face of environmental change and population growth. These ideas have in turn supported a longstanding modernising paradigm whereby African agriculture is argued to require a host of 'new' technical inputs such as mechanisation, chemical fertilisers and pesticides, and hybrid and GM crops. This process has deep colonial roots and, in the wake of pressing issues surrounding climate change and population growth, has re-emerged in recent calls for a new African Green Revolution. However, this 'modernising' paradigm has failed to deliver sustainable prosperity, suggesting that alternative frameworks are required. By analysing how small-holder farmers in Eastern Africa innovate in daily practice, this project will reconsider why wholesale attempts at modernisation have often failed and, in the process, offer alternative ways toward prosperous rural livelihoods. Working with multisectoral partners currently active in food systems research and delivery, we challenge the 'modernisation' imperative by historicising contemporary farming practices in Kenya and diachronically exploring ongoing processes of innovation and ingenuity that seem to have been characteristic of African farming for centuries, arguing instead that these may offer crucial insights into the future of farming practice in the region.
The premise that African farming systems have historically been diverse and highly adaptive draws upon a wealth of archaeological and historical material that demonstrates how they have developed in dynamic ways over several thousand years, continuously diversifying as they became integrated into expansive inter-continental exchange networks with SW Asia, India and China. Such processes continued into the 19th century when, with the formalisation of colonisation, new waves of domesticates and concepts surrounding soil and forest conservation were introduced by 'professional' colonial agricultural officers. Whilst many of these colonial interventions understood African agricultural systems as resistant to change (Anderson 2018; Beinhart 2000), we argue here for a more nuanced narrative wherein small-holders selectively adopted and propagated new ideas, practices, crops and materials (Moore 2018). In this view farmers experiment, generate knowledge, and selectively adopt the ideas of others on a daily basis. We argue that this historic process of creative innovation, selective valuation and intelligent (re-)combination is what constitutes what are often referred to (and often brought into opposition) as both 'tradition' and 'modernity' and that this historical reconceptualization offers an important new starting point for revaluing, supporting and extending farmers capabilities.
Working with diverse partners we will co-design original empirical research with small-holder 'digital farmers' in Elgeyo-Marakwet Kenya. We have specifically chosen to work with partners from both the UK and Kenya and from academic, NGO, international and policy sectors so as to share diverse institutional practices and agenda and to co-design and deliver research that will stimulate institutional responses and specific policy recommendations. By working with, challenging, and supporting partners active in food systems research and delivery we aim to have multiple tangible impacts on policy making and farming livelihoods more broadly, thus demonstrating the important value of arts and humanities led multidisciplinary and transdisciplinary research.

Planned Impact

This project aims reorient how we understand and support small-holder farmer innovation in Eastern Africa by improving the institutional strategies of multiple partners engaged in the delivery of agricultural initiatives. Building on extensive previous experience of community engagement, we purposefully take a co-production approach throughout by engaging the partners at every stage. We will principally operate through partnership workshops in Kenya and the UK and a programme of original data collection. Our theory of change is simple - we will bring together diverse partners involved in food systems delivery around a series of intellectual questions (what is appropriate innovation, where does it come from, who has the ability and right to deliver it) and empirical research (what innovations work, which do not; Workplans 1-3) and use this to examine, challenge and improve partner's own institutional strategies iteratively. We will then jointly form new institutional outputs, policies and strategies with commensurate impacts on livelihoods. We see partnership impacts operating through four levels of immediate to longer-term actions as follows:

i) Policy planning in Elgeyo Marakwet County (EMC): The immediate beneficiaries and target audience will be the farmers of EMC and policy-makers within the County Government. Building on the diverse perspectives of our partnership, we aim to offer consultation to relevant ministries and co-author a data driven policy brief to support and enhance small-holder innovation. This process will empower EMC farmers, who will have the opportunity to directly engage with the County Government through their involvement in data collection and their participation in workshops. This will include a series of on farm tours targeted at ministers and presented by community farmers. Tours will be complemented by the creation of digital maps of farming practice across the county and a series of farmer vlogs and blogs.

ii) Policy impacts on the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) Agri-Food Kenya project (UNEP): Our second target audience focusses on the wider international and scientific community engaged in generating empirical environmental data and specialist policy frameworks. By partnering with one such major initiative, the TEEB project, we aim to integrate historic and ethnographic qualitative data into a major international science and policy initiative. By sharing our data and producing synthesised recommendations directly relevant to TEEB outputs, we expect to influence their data and models.

iii) iii) Impacts on the policies and strategies of other partners: Our third target audience are the other project partners. We expect to develop key recommendations under each WP that relate directly to institutional needs and agendas. Each partner is directly selected because of their role in food systems delivery and their wide networks and on the ground impacts. PAN-UK work extensively with small-holder farmers in Eastern Africa, especially Ethiopia. The Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew currently run a range of collaborative work in Eastern Africa, including the Useful Plants project in Kenya. The East Africa Herbarium (EAH) is a division of the National Museums of Kenya and has wide networks of influence through Kenya government channels and regional scientific networks

iv) Wider publishing and dissemination activities: By broadly focussing historical, cultural and values-based approaches on the policy needs of diverse political, third sector and scientific partners - as a focal point of the project - we will demonstrate the wider value of Arts and Humanities research as central to major political, social and scientific agenda with a wide and longer-term methodological impact. This agenda will be supported by our broader popular and academic outputs and open access data archives
 
Description Due to covid delays some of the project findings are still undergoing analysis and write up. However multiple interim results follow:

Built on the principles of co-design and interdisciplinary collaboration, PIPFA began with three workshops with our project partners in order to discuss the nature of the project and entry points for shaping institutional policy in ways that support and enhance farmer innovation. From these initial workshops, and by working with our team of Citizen Scientists, the PIPFA partnership co-designed a programme of primary data collection. To date, PIPFA has undertaken:

- Forty-one semi structured interviews undertaken by the Citizen Science team across a range of climatic ecological zones in Elegyo Marakwet County. With all interviews having been transcribed and translated, a diverse range of themes have emerged that clearly demonstrate sophisticated and complex knowledges of food production systems, including cropping patterns, soil and irrigation management techniques, land tenure, and dynamic knowledge networks.
- Eighteen Community Workshops exploring the intersections between local farming livelihoods and understandings of prosperity. Transcribed and translated workshops have been thematically coded in NVivo and explore a range of topics including current understandings and perceptions of how to build new and contextual policies that understand the intersection between agricultural livelihoods and wider socio-environmental prosperity.
- Eight participatory maps that demonstrate individual instances of farming diversity. These qualitative maps, complete with accompanying interview data, are illustrative of the creative processes and innovative capacities of small-holder farmers.
- Collected raw geospatial data on indigenous cropping diversity and techniques across the county (537 data points) that document the planting of 31 different food plants and the cropping challenges associated with different food stuffs at various stages in the agricultural calendar.
- Archive of crop diversity is in the final stages of production. This is being produced by collating existing raw project data in conjunction with new fieldwork undertaken by EAH partners who are collecting historic and contemporary indigenous and hybrid crop varieties from across EMC. Thus far a total of of 13 Finger Millet, 10 Sorghum, 9 Maize, 5 Cassava, 6 Banana and 6 Bean varieties have been identified and catalogued alongside 36 wild food plants.
- A systematic review of 20 different digital technologies (mobile apps, fintech) that farmers draw upon to augment agricultural practices and business. This data accompanies interview data, demonstrating a wide range of attitudes and practices from across age groups.
- Published a strategic report exploring the potentials of Farmer Led Regenerative Agriculture as the basis for a new farming future in Africa. This novel report found that the potential of regenerative agriculture as a set of principles and practices that mitigate climate change and revitalises ecosystems must be designed by farmers and practitioners themselves rather than imposed package from experts in the global north.
Exploitation Route Findings and outputs from the PIPFA partnership can and will be used and taken forward in a number of directions. Firstly, the award has reulted in a second, currently ongoing AHRC award, exploring similar themes further. Secondly, outputs produced by the project, including datasets and methods of knowledge production and sharing (e.g. workshops, farmer led blogs and vlogs and farm tours), will be taken forward by the PIPFA partnership itself and used to develop policy frameworks that will empower local subsistence farmers. Thirdly, intellectual findings and outputs may be taken up by the wider international and scientific community engaged in generating empirical environmental data and specialist policy frameworks. For example, by partnering with one such major initiative, the UNEP-TEEB project, we expect to influence the data and models of agri-ecological landscape management to be influenced by the historic and ethnographic qualitative data emphasising the nature of farming innovation. More broadly, by building historical, cultural and values-based approaches to the policy needs of diverse political and scientific actors, results from the PIPFA project demonstrate the wider value of Arts and Humanities research as central to major political, social and scientific agenda with a wide and longer-term methodological impact. These aims are being realised through several impact activities that are emerging, including contributions to expert panels and media broadcasts as reported in relevant sections of Researchfish.
Sectors Agriculture

Food and Drink

Government

Democracy and Justice

 
Description The findings continue to inform agricultural and forest management policy in Elgeyo-Marakwet County Kenya. The findings continue to be used in policy workshops with the County Government.
First Year Of Impact 2020
Sector Agriculture, Food and Drink,Environment,Government, Democracy and Justice
Impact Types Cultural

Societal

Economic

Policy & public services

 
Description Contributor: 'Climate Change and Agriculture' Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology POST NOTE, Number 600, May 2019.
Geographic Reach National 
Policy Influence Type Participation in a guidance/advisory committee
URL https://post.parliament.uk/research-briefings/post-pn-0600/
 
Description Strategic discussions with EMC government on the intersections between health, the environment and agriculture
Geographic Reach Local/Municipal/Regional 
Policy Influence Type Participation in a guidance/advisory committee
 
Description Cultivating through Crises: Empowering African Small-Holders through Histories of Creative Emergency Response (CCEASH)
Amount £125,958 (GBP)
Funding ID AH/V009281/1 
Organisation Arts & Humanities Research Council (AHRC) 
Sector Public
Country United Kingdom
Start 04/2021 
End 01/2022
 
Title Development of Sapelli Citizen Science Applicaiton 
Description Sapelli Citizen Science application to allow farmers to record cropping challenges including pests and disease. See https://ucl.scienceopen.com/hosted-document?doi=10.14324/111.444/000155.v1 
Type Of Material Improvements to research infrastructure 
Year Produced 2021 
Provided To Others? Yes  
Impact This is currently still under pilot development 
URL https://ucl.scienceopen.com/hosted-document?doi=10.14324/111.444/000155.v1
 
Title Sapelli Citizen Science Application 
Description Further development of Sapelli Citizen Science Application to allow Maasai herders to record botanic information 
Type Of Material Improvements to research infrastructure 
Year Produced 2021 
Provided To Others? Yes  
Impact This has been used by community members in Sekenani Kenya to record their local botany and associated indigenous knowledge 
URL https://seriouslydifferent.org/igp-stories/citizen-science-and-botanic-knowledge-among-herders-and-f...
 
Title Sapelli Citizen Science Smartphone collected data 
Description Smartphone data collected using a pilot version of a Sapelli application. The data geospatially records different food plant/crop types and the multiple challenges associated with them. 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2020 
Provided To Others? No  
Impact This data is being written up for publication and will inform future application design to crowd source indigenous farmer knowledge. 
 
Title Structured Farmer Interviews 
Description Set of c. 50 interviews with farmers in Elgeyo-Marakwet County on innovations used on their farms. 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2020 
Provided To Others? No  
Impact This data set underpins several publications and a further grant award. 
 
Description British Institute in Eastern Africa (BIEA) 
Organisation British Institute in Eastern Africa
Country Kenya 
Sector Public 
PI Contribution We work closely with team members at the British Institute in Eastern Africa who co-lead one of the work plans and who provide essential technical assistance.
Collaborator Contribution The partners lead one work package and provide technical support including vehicles and GIS.
Impact Ongoing
Start Year 2019
 
Description IGP UCL - East African Herbarium, National Museums of Kenya 
Organisation National Museums of Kenya
Country Kenya 
Sector Public 
PI Contribution Our team has actively engaged with the National Museums of Kenya's East African Herbarium (EAH) through a number of partner visits and meetings in Nairobi, as well as facilitating workshop webinars with other project partners. Through these meetings, the PIPFA team have engaged the EAH with its theoretical framing of farming innovation and shared primary data on historic and contemporary crop varieties from EMC that will contribute to a regional botanic archive help at EAH.
Collaborator Contribution EAH partners have contributed substantially to workshop discussions, offering unique insights into the biodiversity of landrace and orphan crops from across the Eastern Africa region. EAH partners are also undertaking fieldwork in EMC to collect primary data on crop varieties from across a range of ecological zones that will contribute to their archives.
Impact The production of a physical botanic archive where historic and contemporary crop varieties from across EMC are housed.
Start Year 2019
 
Description IGP UCL - Elgeyo-Marakwet County Government 
Organisation Government of Kenya
Department County Government of Elgeyo Marakwet
Country Kenya 
Sector Public 
PI Contribution Building from the partnership established by the IGP's Nexus project, new policy meetings and workshops with county officials have been undertaken by the PIPFA team focussing more specifically on farming practice. New data has been presented and PIPFA partners introduced in order to generate new discussions surrounding the needs/requirements of EMC county in relation to the intersections of agriculture resilience, ecosystem regeneration and livelihood prosperity.
Collaborator Contribution Following several strategic workshops at which we have presented our ongoing PIPFA research to county officials and where we examined their needs/requirements, working groups have been established to develop further collaborative research engagements and develop policy.
Impact No formal outputs have yet been developed. The project is highly multidisciplinary, working across the social (anthropology, archaeology, economic modelling) and natural sciences (biosciences, climate science, remote sensing etc).
Start Year 2019
 
Description IGP UCL - Kew Gardens 
Organisation Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
Country United Kingdom 
Sector Charity/Non Profit 
PI Contribution Our team has actively engaged with colleague's at Kew Gardens, introducing them to the theoretical framing of the PIPFA project on farming innovation and sharing primary data on indigenous crop varieties in Elgeyo Marakwet County. We have undertaken a strategic review of Kew's knowledge base and institutional approach to the documentation of indigenous farming in order to identify entry points for generating new forms of primary data and co-developing novel policy frameworks that support farming innovation.
Collaborator Contribution Kew Gardens have contributed substantially to workshop discussions, offering unique insights into the rich biodiversity and ethnobotany of farmers across East Africa. These discussions have formed the basis for a strong working relationship that will be built upon for future grant applications that aim to co-design new farming futures built upon the principles of biodiversity, resilience and regeneration.
Impact No formal outcomes or publications are yet forthcoming.
Start Year 2019
 
Description IGP UCL- UNEP TEEB 
Organisation United Nations (UN)
Department United Nations Environment Programme
Country Kenya 
Sector Charity/Non Profit 
PI Contribution Our team has actively engaged with UNEP's Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity frame (TEEB) in order to bring qualitative and historic understandings of farming innovation to wider agri-ecological landscape modelling and accounting. We have undertaken a strategic review of TEEB's knowledge base and institutional approach to supporting in order to identify entry points for co-developing new novel policy frameworks that place farmers at the centre of landscape regeneration.
Collaborator Contribution TEEB partners have contributed to workshop discussions by bringing unique insights into the interconnections between agriculture systems and wider ecosystem regeneration. This modelling has provided an invaluable dimension to our interdisciplinary partnership and we aim to build from this working relationship in order to develop system-wide, yet farmer centred, policy frameworks for EMC county government.
Impact No formal outputs are yet forthcoming.
Start Year 2019
 
Description McDonald Instittute for Archaeological Research 
Organisation University of Cambridge
Department McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research
Country United Kingdom 
Sector Academic/University 
PI Contribution The PI Dr Davies has moved institution to the McDonald Institute who now commit core funds to supporting this Research. Dr Lunn-Rockliffe the Researcher Co-Investigator now also holds a Leverhulme ECRF at this Institute and the Institute subsidises this position.
Collaborator Contribution They provide a new institutional home for two of the key researchers.
Impact Ongoing
Start Year 2022
 
Description UCL IGP-Pesticide Action Network UK 
Organisation Pesticide Action Network UK
Country United Kingdom 
Sector Charity/Non Profit 
PI Contribution Our team has actively engaged PAN-UK with PIPFA's theoretical framing of farming innovation and sharing primary data. We have undertaken a strategic review of PAN-UK's knowledge base and institutional approach to supporting small holder farmers in order to identify entry points for co-developing novel policy frameworks
Collaborator Contribution PAN-UK partners have contributed substantially to workshop discussions, offering unique insights into farming innovation from across the African continent. From these discussions, we aim to write a journal article and/or policy paper that critically explores diverse approaches to agricultural innovation in development literature with and to centre farmers as agents of creativity within such processes
Impact No formal publications are yet forthcoming.
Start Year 2019
 
Description University of Eldoret 
Organisation University of Eldoret
Country Kenya 
Sector Academic/University 
PI Contribution We are supporting the engagement of Kenya colleagues with local policy makers.
Collaborator Contribution Kenyan colleagues at the University of Eldoret provide essential intellectual leadership of one of the workplans and key local knowledge.
Impact Ongoing
Start Year 2019
 
Title Development and trialling of Sapelli Citizen Science Data collection tool for farmers and herders in Eastern Africa to collect indigenous botanic data 
Description Two project designs to run in the open source (via Android store) Sapelli Citizen Science data collection application. One for farmers in Eastern Africa to collect plant food botanic knowledge, another for herders to collect useful plant botanic knowledge. 
Type Of Technology Software 
Year Produced 2021 
Open Source License? Yes  
Impact The data is being used to advise policy planners in Eastern Africa 
 
Description BBC Radio 3 'Green Thinking: Food' with Des Fitzgerald, Matthew Davies (UCL) and Peter Jackson (Sheffield). Podcast for COP26 with the AHRC/UKRI. 
Form Of Engagement Activity A broadcast e.g. TV/radio/film/podcast (other than news/press)
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact BBC Radio 3 Green Thinking Podcast on sustainable food.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2021
URL https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p09pxxlg
 
Description Blog: Citizen science and botanic knowledge among herders and farmers in Kenya 
Form Of Engagement Activity Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact There are good numbers of website views from several countries.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2019
URL https://seriouslydifferent.org/igp-stories/citizen-science-and-botanic-knowledge-among-herders-and-f...
 
Description Blog: Re-thinking the role of small-holder farmers in the future of food production 
Form Of Engagement Activity Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact The post is well viewed from several countries.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
URL https://seriouslydifferent.org/igp-stories/re-thinking-the-role-of-small-holder-farmers-in-the-futur...
 
Description Contributor: 'Climate Change and Agriculture' Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology POST NOTE, Number 600, May 2019. 
Form Of Engagement Activity A formal working group, expert panel or dialogue
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact Expert contribution to Parlimentary POST note on Climate Change and Agriculture
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2019
URL https://post.parliament.uk/research-briefings/post-pn-0600/
 
Description Davies, M. 2020. 'Let's rethink how we look at impact and research' Times Higher Education Supplement. April 2020. 
Form Of Engagement Activity Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Professional Practitioners
Results and Impact Blog post on how we need to rethink the nature of research impact.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
URL https://www.timeshighereducation.com/search?e=404&search=blog%20lets%20rethink%20how%20we%20look%20i...
 
Description Policy workshops with Elgeyo-Marakwet County Government, Kenya 
Form Of Engagement Activity Participation in an activity, workshop or similar
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact We conducted five 2 hr long policy workshops with Elgeyo-Marakwet country government in Kenya. These workshops involved a wide range of attendees from across the country government, including department/ministry heads and their staff - including from environment, natural resources, agriculture, water, infrastructure and energy as well as the county secretary. The workshops covered approaches to regenerative agriculture, agriculture and bio-circular economies, botanic resources, natural capital, agricultural value chains and wider systems change. The workshops introduced research driven ideas, concepts and data to the county staff and sought feedback and priorities for future work from them. They have resulted in the sharing of key policy documents and commitments to collaboratively work on new policy outputs.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
 
Description Reconceptualising Innovation for Agricultural Futures in Africa: Part II 
Form Of Engagement Activity Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact Blog post with international views
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2021
URL https://seriouslydifferent.org/igp-stories/reconceptualising-innovation-for-agricultural-futures-in-...
 
Description Reconceptualising innovation for agricultural futures in Africa: Part I 
Form Of Engagement Activity Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact Blog post with international views
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2021
URL https://seriouslydifferent.org/igp-stories/reconceptualising-innovation-for-agricultural-futures-in-...
 
Description Supporting the capacities and knowledge of small-holder farmers in Kenya for sustainable agricultural futures :A Citizen Science pilot project 
Form Of Engagement Activity Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Other audiences
Results and Impact Public website post
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2024
URL https://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/news/citizen-science-kenya-farmers