Institutional Abuse: Reformatory Schools and the use of physical force
Lead Research Organisation:
University of Birmingham
Department Name: Social Policy, Sociology and Criminology
Abstract
This is an historical criminological project which will explore the first government-run youth institutions in England; the reformatory schools. The criminal justice system (CJS) remains the only institution where the deliberate infliction of pain on children is sanctioned in the UK. Child protection advocates argue that the restraint techniques used causes unnecessary harm. Yet, they are justified under the pretence of controlling children within the secure estate. This research will explore the narratives of 'justification' from an historical perspective. This will be done by consulting regional reformatory records (institutional level), parliamentary reports (political level), and newspapers (public level). Since children have been imprisoned, they have been mistreated and abused. How was the use of physical force justified, criticised and/or ignored within these historical institutions and within the wider context of the political/public domain? This long historical lens will enable an understanding of the continued acceptance of the mistreatment of children within the secure estate today.
This project has a three legged output strategy, which are inter-related; academic, policy and public engagement. (1) I will contribute to the academic debate through this interdisciplinary project through academic peer review journal articles and conference papers in the field of both child abuse studies and criminology to ensure I both learn from and add to these different, but related, fields of study. Similarly, I will hold a symposium at the close of the project to bring together interdisciplinary speakers working in or studying different institutionalised settings across the globe (not limited to the Criminal Justice System). This will enable the project to have wider impact. (2) The findings from the project will enable me to feed into the policy debate for future policy reform. I will write a Policy Briefing Document for History and Policy for dissemination amongst relevant All-Party Parliamentary Groups and a shorter Fact Sheet version for wider distribution. (3) Often change is enabled due to public interest and awareness of the issues. As such, this project will also engage with the public to raise awareness and support for the issues at hand through an inclusive Blog/Podcast Series, public-facing talks hosted by already established networks with a ready audience built in, and lastly through a written piece in the public-facing media outlet The Conversation.
In this way, this project will work towards an increased knowledge and understanding of the issue of mistreatment of juveniles in institutions over time. I will add to the interdisciplinary field of institutional studies, feed into policy reform debates for change in youth justice, and inform and engage with the public on issues of harm in historical settings involving oft overlooked offending children.
This project has a three legged output strategy, which are inter-related; academic, policy and public engagement. (1) I will contribute to the academic debate through this interdisciplinary project through academic peer review journal articles and conference papers in the field of both child abuse studies and criminology to ensure I both learn from and add to these different, but related, fields of study. Similarly, I will hold a symposium at the close of the project to bring together interdisciplinary speakers working in or studying different institutionalised settings across the globe (not limited to the Criminal Justice System). This will enable the project to have wider impact. (2) The findings from the project will enable me to feed into the policy debate for future policy reform. I will write a Policy Briefing Document for History and Policy for dissemination amongst relevant All-Party Parliamentary Groups and a shorter Fact Sheet version for wider distribution. (3) Often change is enabled due to public interest and awareness of the issues. As such, this project will also engage with the public to raise awareness and support for the issues at hand through an inclusive Blog/Podcast Series, public-facing talks hosted by already established networks with a ready audience built in, and lastly through a written piece in the public-facing media outlet The Conversation.
In this way, this project will work towards an increased knowledge and understanding of the issue of mistreatment of juveniles in institutions over time. I will add to the interdisciplinary field of institutional studies, feed into policy reform debates for change in youth justice, and inform and engage with the public on issues of harm in historical settings involving oft overlooked offending children.
| Description | This project has explored the use and justification of physical force on children in institutionalised settings from an historical perspective. By exploring different institutions across England, this research has found that corporal punishment was used throughout the period under study and that it was not used as a 'last resort' or in 'exceptional cases' as stated by the Home Office, politicians and the institutions themselves. Indeed, the evidence from the primary archival research goes against academic coverage of this topic, which has largely agreed with the narrative of exceptionalism. This was the case for both boy's and girl's reformatory and industrial school institutions explored. This research has compiled a comprehensive list of un-(sanctioned) punishments at 3 different English reformatory schools and 1 industrial school. Said findings has allowed an understanding of the extent of punishment used, and the 'offending' which led to it. While absconding, theft and violent acts were committed by these children, the overwhelming reasons for punishment was naughty behaviour. Meaning, not listening to instructions and answering back. By exploring the historical newspapers, institutional records and parliamentary debates we found that institutional, public and political (dis)-approval of its use differed. There was no serious attempt to ban corporal punishment within these institutions in the same way there was for judicial corporal punishment. Moreover, through turning to the archives, it becomes clear that the closer the proximity to the children, the more in favour of corporal punishment the actors involved in the reformatory system were. Indeed, despite top-down progressive reforming ideas, institutional practices were slow to change on the ground. While views of corporal punishment have changed overtime, there has always been, and remains, a standpoint in which children are seen as suitable subjects to receive physical force, as opposed to adults. |
| Exploitation Route | Academic: This research can be built on by academics working in the field of historical criminology and crime history, particularly those concerned with institutional abuse and control, and how offending juveniles have been positioned and dealt with by the state. This could be done by expanding the coverage to consider international comparisons. This current project has considered how differences of age, sex and class have interacted to affect the narrative of justification of the use of corporal punishment. It would be interesting to explore the effects of race and colonial subjugation by investigating similar institutions across the globe. Practice: In 2023 the government announced the imminent banning of the use of pain-inducing techniques as an official form of restraint across the youth secure estate. However, the new MoJ policy outlines that such techniques can be used in emergency scenarios to save life or to prevent life-changing injury. Therefore, it has not been banned. We will be watching carefully for the change in practice in response to this policy change. While the use of physical force on imprisoned young people is not new, what has been allowed under regulations, how children have been able to seek recourse (if at all), and the responses/justifications by authorities, has changed as demonstrated in this research. This research has found that policy and narrative do not always align with practice. This research can be used to further question the continued allowance of physical force within the youth secure estate. |
| Sectors | Education Government Democracy and Justice Culture Heritage Museums and Collections |
| URL | https://ewatkins1bc479014fd.wordpress.com/ |
| Description | A symposium, Institutional Care or Control: Past & Present, took place in December 2024 which included papers and panels concerned with institutional confinement. This included criminal justice institutions (e.g. Reformatories, Houses of Correction and Borstals), workhouses/charitable institutions, and institutions which house(d) those classified as inebriates or as having mental health disorders. Aspects that were considered; movement in and out of the institution, life and treatment within the institution, experience of those caught up within them, the aims and objectives of those who ran the institutions, and policy change and continuity. As well as bringing out comparisons across time, this symposium included those working on different institutionalised settings across the globe. A feedback survey from the event demonstrated that 100% were satisfied with the event, and found the event of academic value with free text comments stating the networking and sharing of ideas across disciplines was of particular use. This has resulted in an agreement with The Journal of Historical Criminology for a Special Issue on the theme of 'Institutional Care or Control: Past & Present'. The call for papers is currently out. |
| First Year Of Impact | 2025 |
| Sector | Education,Government, Democracy and Justice,Other |
| Impact Types | Cultural Societal |
| Description | University of Birmingham Internationalisation Funding |
| Amount | $5,040 (AUD) |
| Organisation | University of Birmingham |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Start | |
| Description | Festival of social sciences (ESRC) |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | National |
| Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
| Results and Impact | In October 2024, the PI gave a online talk with Q&A which focused on the use of corporal punishment, utilising finding and sharing findings form the project. The FoSS assists research take their research to the wider public. The topic of this talk is the history of corporal punishment of children. The PI discussing public and political views of corporal punishment, exploring the divisory and contradictory opinions and justifications across the nineteenth- and twentieth-century. As well as the changes to corporal punishment over time and across different contexts, the talk explored differences according to demographics and considered the position today. The talk was split into three sections focused on corporal punishment within: the criminal justice system (both judicial and within institution); educational setting; and the family home. The feedback from the talk was positive with 100% of attendance agreeing that they learnt something from the talk. Free text comments included: 'Emma was excellent and the event was very informative. Great to see this research being presented'; 'Excellent. Clearly structured and cogently argued. One of the best zoom events I've listened to'; Really enjoyable and thought provoking'; and, 'It was really interesting, and what i found interesting is how the current law differs between different UK countries.' |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| URL | https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/university/colleges/socsci/events/2024/esrc/corporal-punishment-through... |
| Description | School Engagement |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Regional |
| Primary Audience | Schools |
| Results and Impact | In May 2024 the project team visited the University of Birmingham School to deliver seminars to different groups of school students. We shared the latest findings from our project, discussed the use of corporal punishment and punishment more broadly, and answered their questions. This interactive session introduced them to interdisciplinary approaches in research and encouraged them to consider and critique the use of corporal punishment on children. Students expressed surprise at many of the findings and demonstrated, through their engagement in the activities, that they had both learnt something new, and that their views had changed. These sessions were also presented as taster session. As such admissions criteria for the Department of Social Policy, Sociology and Criminology were given. Several students expressed their interest in higher education and asked advice on this in the Q&A, and after informally while packing up. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| URL | https://ewatkins1bc479014fd.wordpress.com/public-engagement-activity-at-uob-school/ |
| Description | Website: Reformatory Schools |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
| Results and Impact | For this project a website was set up in order to share the work-in-progress findings, advertise events and otherwise engage both fellow academics, researchers, practitioners and the public. On this website, there are a number of blogs, which will be joined by podcasts at the end of this month. As well as the process of research and key findings, the site also updates the public on different activities. The site has had thousands of views from visitors across the globe. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023,2024,2025 |
| URL | https://ewatkins1bc479014fd.wordpress.com/ |