IMPacts of Cooking and Cleaning on indoor Air quality: towards healthy BuiLdings for the futurE: IMPeCCABLE
Lead Research Organisation:
University of York
Department Name: Environment
Abstract
It is estimated that in developed countries such as the UK, we spend about 90% of our time indoors, with a significant portion spent in our homes. As a result, much of our exposure to air pollutants happens in the home even if the pollutants are made outdoors (e.g. by cars) and find their way indoors through windows and doors. As climate change leads to an increased focus on energy efficiency measures, one consequence is that we are building our homes to be more airtight to prevent energy loss. So compared to previous generations, we are spending more time indoors within buildings that are becoming more airtight. Clearly, if we then undertake activities indoors that form air pollutants, we could be exposed to high concentrations of air pollutants that could be harmful to health.
Such activities indoors include cooking and cleaning. We know that cooking generates high concentrations of particulate matter, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide. The emission rates of pollutants vary widely and depend on the cooking method, and the oil and food types. For instance, concentrations of small particles have been shown to exceed acute health standards over several hours when frying meat. Such concentrations are a concern as we know that adverse health effects of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems can result from exposure to these particles. Cleaning is another regular activity indoors, with studies showing that bleach cleaning can impact indoor air quality. We also know that domestic cleaning staff have high rates of asthma, again suggesting that cleaning activities may cause adverse health effects in some individuals.
As houses continue to become increasingly airtight through energy efficiency measures, we may increase our exposure to indoor air pollution if sources such as cooking and cleaning dominate our exposure. We need to understand the sources and reactions of pollutants indoors, particularly as many studies show that secondary pollutants formed through chemical reactions indoors are more harmful to health than primary emissions: for instance, we know that the carcinogen formaldehyde is a reaction product of limonene oxidation, the latter species being a key component of many cleaning formulations.
Therefore, to understand the impact of indoor emissions and to develop appropriate mitigation measures this project will:
(i) investigate the emissions from different pollution sources indoors, both in terms of the strength of these emissions and their composition
(ii) investigate the chemistry that occurs indoors following these emissions - what are the key chemical reactions indoors and what are the harmful products formed?
(iii) identify the consequent implications for building occupants in terms of exposure to air pollution - can we identify behaviour that might lead to higher exposures indoors and identify how to reduce that exposure?
(iv) use this knowledge to make recommendations for future building design and use based on rigorous science.
Although measurements of cooking and cleaning emissions exist, they tend to focus on a few emission rates, rather than studying a wide range of emitted species and the chemistry that follows from the emissions. Measurements have been mostly made in the US, where building design and use differ considerably to the UK. This project will use a holistic approach with combined experiments and modelling studies over a range of spatial scales (starting with small chambers and increasing up to test-house size), to understand the resulting indoor air quality when we cook and clean indoors. Our study will then deliver rigorous recommendations for building design, management and use based on typical indoor activities. The involvement of a range of stakeholders - including representatives from architecture, building management (including catering and cleaning managers), the chemical industry and building regulations - will ensure the results are relevant.
Such activities indoors include cooking and cleaning. We know that cooking generates high concentrations of particulate matter, nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide. The emission rates of pollutants vary widely and depend on the cooking method, and the oil and food types. For instance, concentrations of small particles have been shown to exceed acute health standards over several hours when frying meat. Such concentrations are a concern as we know that adverse health effects of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems can result from exposure to these particles. Cleaning is another regular activity indoors, with studies showing that bleach cleaning can impact indoor air quality. We also know that domestic cleaning staff have high rates of asthma, again suggesting that cleaning activities may cause adverse health effects in some individuals.
As houses continue to become increasingly airtight through energy efficiency measures, we may increase our exposure to indoor air pollution if sources such as cooking and cleaning dominate our exposure. We need to understand the sources and reactions of pollutants indoors, particularly as many studies show that secondary pollutants formed through chemical reactions indoors are more harmful to health than primary emissions: for instance, we know that the carcinogen formaldehyde is a reaction product of limonene oxidation, the latter species being a key component of many cleaning formulations.
Therefore, to understand the impact of indoor emissions and to develop appropriate mitigation measures this project will:
(i) investigate the emissions from different pollution sources indoors, both in terms of the strength of these emissions and their composition
(ii) investigate the chemistry that occurs indoors following these emissions - what are the key chemical reactions indoors and what are the harmful products formed?
(iii) identify the consequent implications for building occupants in terms of exposure to air pollution - can we identify behaviour that might lead to higher exposures indoors and identify how to reduce that exposure?
(iv) use this knowledge to make recommendations for future building design and use based on rigorous science.
Although measurements of cooking and cleaning emissions exist, they tend to focus on a few emission rates, rather than studying a wide range of emitted species and the chemistry that follows from the emissions. Measurements have been mostly made in the US, where building design and use differ considerably to the UK. This project will use a holistic approach with combined experiments and modelling studies over a range of spatial scales (starting with small chambers and increasing up to test-house size), to understand the resulting indoor air quality when we cook and clean indoors. Our study will then deliver rigorous recommendations for building design, management and use based on typical indoor activities. The involvement of a range of stakeholders - including representatives from architecture, building management (including catering and cleaning managers), the chemical industry and building regulations - will ensure the results are relevant.
Planned Impact
Who will benefit
The impact from this proposal will be focused on several key groups: building regulators; building designers and managers; cleaning product manufacturers and most importantly, building users. Those who work in jobs involving cleaning and cooking activities also stand to benefit through the improved knowledge that will be gained from this research. Clearly, given we all live and work in buildings and spend the majority of our time indoors, there is potentially a very wide societal impact from our research. Furthermore, the most vulnerable in society (the young, the elderly and the sick) tend to spend even more of their time indoors than the estimated 90% average for developed countries, so the there is also a social welfare consideration.
What will the impacts be?
All of the stakeholder groups will have a raised awareness of the need for effective ventilation when cooking and cleaning indoors. The specific impacts will vary by stakeholder group, so they are discussed separately:
Building regulators: building regulators play a key role in terms of setting the necessary parameters (e.g. ventilation rate) around the construction of new buildings. They are under increasing pressure to reduce energy loss in buildings given climate change concerns and this could potentially lead to worse IAQ if the impact of everyday activities in buildings is ignored. In quantifying the impacts of such activities on IAQ, we will provide the necessary evidence to support improved recommendations. This will lead to building regulations that better reflect the current building stock and lead to improved IAQ.
Building designers and managers: Our research will provide quantitative evidence on the impacts of cooking and cleaning indoors, through the measurements and complimentary modelling studies. This information will lead to improved design and management of buildings that are fit for purpose given typical indoor behaviour.
Cleaning product manufacturers: By understanding the pathways to pollutant formation following the use of cleaning products, we can make recommendations regarding the replacement of particularly reactive components, e.g. those that form high concentrations of formaldehyde through their ongoing chemistry. Such information will have impact for those who manufacturer such products, as it will provide relevant information for them to improve their products. Future sales could be enhanced if better product formulations are identified that are 'low emitters' and this claim is backed up by rigorous science
Building users: Many building users are currently unaware that they can take quite simple steps to improve IAQ. We will impart this information to them as described in the Pathways to Impact Section. For instance, although many houses have cooker hoods fitted in their kitchens, they are often not used during cooking activities. By quantifying the pollutants formed during cooking and putting them into context of other exposures (e.g. from vehicle exhausts whilst walking down a busy street), we will be able raise awareness of this issue and help improve air quality indoors and consequently, health and well-being through a reduced exposure to air pollutants.
The impact from this proposal will be focused on several key groups: building regulators; building designers and managers; cleaning product manufacturers and most importantly, building users. Those who work in jobs involving cleaning and cooking activities also stand to benefit through the improved knowledge that will be gained from this research. Clearly, given we all live and work in buildings and spend the majority of our time indoors, there is potentially a very wide societal impact from our research. Furthermore, the most vulnerable in society (the young, the elderly and the sick) tend to spend even more of their time indoors than the estimated 90% average for developed countries, so the there is also a social welfare consideration.
What will the impacts be?
All of the stakeholder groups will have a raised awareness of the need for effective ventilation when cooking and cleaning indoors. The specific impacts will vary by stakeholder group, so they are discussed separately:
Building regulators: building regulators play a key role in terms of setting the necessary parameters (e.g. ventilation rate) around the construction of new buildings. They are under increasing pressure to reduce energy loss in buildings given climate change concerns and this could potentially lead to worse IAQ if the impact of everyday activities in buildings is ignored. In quantifying the impacts of such activities on IAQ, we will provide the necessary evidence to support improved recommendations. This will lead to building regulations that better reflect the current building stock and lead to improved IAQ.
Building designers and managers: Our research will provide quantitative evidence on the impacts of cooking and cleaning indoors, through the measurements and complimentary modelling studies. This information will lead to improved design and management of buildings that are fit for purpose given typical indoor behaviour.
Cleaning product manufacturers: By understanding the pathways to pollutant formation following the use of cleaning products, we can make recommendations regarding the replacement of particularly reactive components, e.g. those that form high concentrations of formaldehyde through their ongoing chemistry. Such information will have impact for those who manufacturer such products, as it will provide relevant information for them to improve their products. Future sales could be enhanced if better product formulations are identified that are 'low emitters' and this claim is backed up by rigorous science
Building users: Many building users are currently unaware that they can take quite simple steps to improve IAQ. We will impart this information to them as described in the Pathways to Impact Section. For instance, although many houses have cooker hoods fitted in their kitchens, they are often not used during cooking activities. By quantifying the pollutants formed during cooking and putting them into context of other exposures (e.g. from vehicle exhausts whilst walking down a busy street), we will be able raise awareness of this issue and help improve air quality indoors and consequently, health and well-being through a reduced exposure to air pollutants.
Publications
Davies HL
(2023)
A measurement and modelling investigation of the indoor air chemistry following cooking activities.
in Environmental science. Processes & impacts
Harding-Smith E
(2024)
Does green mean clean? Volatile organic emissions from regular versus green cleaning products
in Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts
Harding-Smith E.
(2022)
Impacts of Cleaning on Indoor Air Quality: Regular versus 'Green' Cleaning Products
in 17th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, INDOOR AIR 2022
Harding-Smith, E.
(2022)
Impacts of Cleaning on Indoor Air Quality: Regular versus 'Green' Cleaning Products
Molina C
(2024)
Investigating methods to quantifying uncertainty in PM2.5 emission rates from cooking by toasting bread
in Building and Environment
Morantes G
(2024)
Harm from Residential Indoor Air Contaminants.
in Environmental science & technology
O'Leary C.
(2022)
Investigating primary emissions and secondary chemistry following cooking
in 17th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, INDOOR AIR 2022
O'Leary, C.
(2022)
Investigating primary emissions and secondary chemistry following cooking
Title | The IMPECCABLE Project: Impact of cleaning on air quality |
Description | An educational video on indoor air quality following cleaning, and what you can do about it. |
Type Of Art | Film/Video/Animation |
Year Produced | 2022 |
Impact | 341 views so far |
URL | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DAIjSeuiZho |
Title | The impact of cooking on indoor air qaulity |
Description | Educational video around emissions released following cooking indoors and solutions to improve the air quality afterwards. |
Type Of Art | Film/Video/Animation |
Year Produced | 2022 |
Impact | 349 views so far. |
URL | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5hlr2LKWMTs |
Description | We have found that cooking emissions can vary significantly, both between different meals, but even within the same meal. There are higher emissions of volatile organic compounds when frying meat, compared to frying vegetables. The type of volatile organic compounds also varies if you are cooking meat, vegetables, or just heating the oil. Adding 'wet' ingredients like a stir fry sauce, or a tin of tomatoes, tends to dampen the emissions. For cleaning, we have found significant emissions associated with green/natural cleaners. Although they may contain natural ingredients, they can still lead to high emissions of volatile organic compounds. Products labelled as 'low emission' lead to lower volatile organic compound concentrations, whether natural or synthetic. We are hoping that these findings will influence policy, such as around the need for better labelling. |
Exploitation Route | We have 1-2 final publications being finalised. The results are informing another UKRI project (INGENIOUS, funded by NERC) and will also be useful for a new indoor air facility being built at the University of York (due to open in spring 2026). |
Sectors | Agriculture Food and Drink Chemicals Communities and Social Services/Policy Construction Education Energy Environment Healthcare Government Democracy and Justice Manufacturing including Industrial Biotechology |
URL | https://impeccable.york.ac.uk/ |
Description | As a result of this work (and other projects) by the PI, she is receiving much more frequent requests to talk to the press about indoor air quality issues, raising awareness for the general public. It is often the case that one request leads to another (e.g. the Times article, followed by the Radio Scotland interview). In the last year, there has been more media interest, mainly around green cleaning products. The PI was also invited to talk to the Parliamentary Science Committee about indoor air quality. |
First Year Of Impact | 2021 |
Sector | Chemicals,Government, Democracy and Justice,Manufacturing, including Industrial Biotechology |
Impact Types | Societal |
Description | Article in the Open Access Government report |
Geographic Reach | Europe |
Policy Influence Type | Implementation circular/rapid advice/letter to e.g. Ministry of Health |
URL | https://edition.pagesuite-professional.co.uk/html5/reader/production/default.aspx?pubname=&edid=eafd... |
Description | Cleaning product tests and insight |
Amount | £4,330 (GBP) |
Organisation | Which? |
Sector | Private |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 05/2021 |
End | 05/2022 |
Description | Indoor Air Chemistry: The Impacts of Fragranced Cleaning Products on the Indoor Environment |
Amount | £73,500 (GBP) |
Organisation | Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) |
Sector | Public |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 09/2020 |
End | 03/2024 |
Description | Platform technology for the removal of critically underserved air pollutants in homes |
Amount | £136,295 (GBP) |
Funding ID | Innovate UK File Reference number is 10021494 |
Organisation | Innovate UK |
Sector | Public |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 03/2022 |
End | 12/2022 |
Description | Collaboration with Immaterial |
Organisation | Immaterial Labs |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Private |
PI Contribution | Immaterial manufacture metal organic frameworks, or MOFs, to remove pollutants from air. Immaterial are a start-up company working on proof of concept at the moment, rather than manufacturing their materials at large scale. We invited Immaterial to our project meetings and were able to test the potential of their novel materials to remove air pollutants generated during cooking and cleaning during some of our early experiments. This collaboration has led to a small, additional research project application being submitted to Innovate UK to further test these materials. This proposal was successful and attracted £136K in additional funding (see further funding section). |
Collaborator Contribution | Members of the Immaterial team have attended some of our project meetings and also provided some of their novel air cleaning materials to test during our early experiments. They contributed towards the preparation of the research project application to Innovate UK. As a result of this collaboration through IMPECCABLE, Immaterial also became involved in another UKRI funded project, INGENIOUS. |
Impact | Research application (see further funding) Involvement of Immaterial in another UKRI grant for NERC called INGENIOUS, that links indoor air pollution, health and behaviour (see INGENIOUS grant details). |
Start Year | 2021 |
Description | Article in the CIBSE magazine |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Industry/Business |
Results and Impact | A report on the key findings from the project to reach a non-academic audience, more geared towards practitioners. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
URL | https://www.cibsejournal.com/technical/a-recipe-for-good-iaq-the-impact-of-cooking-and-cleaning-on-i... |
Description | BBC Future article called 'The surprising dangers of cooking and cleaning'. |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | I was asked to contribute to an article exploring the impacts of cooking and cleaning, which ended up on the BBC website. This article aimed to improve understanding of the emissions associated with these activities and practical advice on what can be done. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2020 |
URL | https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200909-why-indoor-air-pollution-is-an-overlooked-problem |
Description | Final Project workshop |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Industry/Business |
Results and Impact | Final workshop to mark the end of the project. We presented our results via presentations from the students and post-docs and also invited some international speakers who presented on relevant topics. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
Description | Futurum education materials |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Schools |
Results and Impact | Futurum Careers is a free online resource and magazine aimed at introducing 14-19-year-olds worldwide to the world of work in STEM (science, tech, engineering, maths, medicine) and SHAPE (social sciences, humanities and the arts for people and the economy). Futurum aims to translate the complex research being funded by the UK research agencies into engaging narratives with educational resources for teachers and educators across the UK. Besides publishing these articles and activity sheets to their own website (www.futurumcareers.com), they also publish them onto the www.TES.com platform. This means they become available to Teachers and Educators within a repository they are already familiar with and using. We provided some materials on cooking and cleaning that were then converted into a teaching resource. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2021 |
URL | https://futurumcareers.com/how-do-cooking-and-cleaning-impact-the-air-quality-in-our-homes |
Description | Interviewed by Financial Times around scented candle impacts |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Interviewed for an article by the Financial Times (Style Editor) for article on the pros and cons of scented candle use. Educational purpose as many people don't know about emissions from scented candles. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
URL | https://www.ft.com/content/6864fbb1-2a39-40bf-995a-f43d92d0d5b5 |
Description | Interviewed for BBC Radio Scotland |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Interviewed about spring cleaning, following on from article in the Times. Only happened a few days ago, so no impact to report yet. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
URL | https://mms.tveyes.com/MediaDownload.asp?MDID=19145532&MDS=6149 |
Description | Interviewed for newspaper based on research from project |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Interviewed by I newspaper for commentary around emissions from cooking. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
URL | https://inews.co.uk/inews-lifestyle/used-pollution-monitor-worst-offenders-stir-fries-scented-candle... |
Description | Midpoint workshop |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Professional Practitioners |
Results and Impact | We held a midpoint workshop online owing to ongoing covid restrictions and made the event open to all. We had around 40 participants from a range of European countries and also one attendee from the US. As part of the workshop, we asked participants to identify future key areas of research around impacts of cooking and cleaning on indoor air quality. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
URL | https://sites.google.com/york.ac.uk/impeccable/workshops?authuser=0 |
Description | Newspaper interview: The Independent |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Interviewed around impact of gas cooker use on indoor air quality. Purpose was educational as many people unaware of implications for indoor air quality following gas cooker use. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
URL | https://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/pollution-gas-stove-cooking-b2266571.html |
Description | Newspaper interview: The Times |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Interviewed around emissions that might arise from spring cleaning given time of year. Led directly to a request to appear on BBC Radio Scotland. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
URL | https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/wait-before-you-blitz-the-mould-are-those-cleaning-products-toxic... |
Description | Press release on our green cleaning products paper |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Media (as a channel to the public) |
Results and Impact | We released a press release about our new publication and it generated the following articles. - https://www.earth.com/news/green-cleaning-products-may-be-as-harmful-as-traditional-ones/ - https://phys.org/news/2024-02-green-doesnt-products-urgently.html - https://www.azocleantech.com/news.aspx?newsID=34590 |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
URL | https://www.york.ac.uk/news-and-events/news/2024/research/green-not-clean/ |
Description | Primary Schools outreach |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | Local |
Primary Audience | Schools |
Results and Impact | Primary Schools outreach in Dept of Chemistry labs, with a "Clean Air Day" theme: St. Lawrence's Primary year 5 class, 20th June. Badger Hill Primary year 5 class, 21st June. 1 staff, 2 PDRAs, 4 students. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |
Description | Which video |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Asked to take part in a short film that Which magazine were making on indoor air quality, focusing on cooking and cleaning. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2020 |
URL | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dEGT5o66jnQ |
Description | York Festival of Ideas. |
Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | Local |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | Discovery Zone in the Guildhall on 12th June 2022 on the topic of "Indoor Air Science" with 2 staff, 3 PDRAs and 3 students. Opportunities for members of public to get hands on experience. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2022 |