Towards stable solar water-splitting devices: elucidating the degradation kinetics in metal oxides-based photoelectrochemical devices
Lead Research Organisation:
Imperial College London
Department Name: Chemistry
Abstract
Advanced economies, including European Union, have recently adopted or will soon announce hydrogen (H2) strategies targeting the broader goal of 'sector integration'. These strategies present a clear shift in global politics towards a net-zero approach in which H2 will play a major role to help decarbonize hard-to-electrify sectors. At present, however, industrial H2 is mainly produced by steam reforming of methane, which requires substantial hydrocarbon inputs and generates CO2 emissions. Photoelectrochemical (PEC) devices constitute one of the most challenging yet promising H2 production technologies, and can potentially achieve sustainable development of H2 energy in the future. However, until now, the investigation of environmentally friendly PEC systems for H2 production has been mainly focused on improving the solar-to-hydrogen (STH) efficiency while their stability and in particular the causes behind degradation, are less investigated. However, as scientists and engineers, it is important to develop new technologies in which the overall performances are taken into account, to pave the way for their commercial application. In RainDrop I tackle this issue, aiming to investigate the underlying causes of degradations of state-of-the-art metal oxides photoelectrodes and of their passivation layers, using a holistic approach that foresees the use of novel advanced methods based on in-situ and operando techniques. A wide range of spectroscopic and surface probe techniques will be used to develop a deeper understanding of the interplay between kinetics and energetics of the devices, and in particular how the dynamics and degradation processes are reciprocally influenced. Through iterative design the key factors of the degradation mechanisms will be identified and general materials design guidelines will be proposed to improve the stability of MOx-based PEC systems. Ultimately, an optimized MOx-PEC device will be assembled for obtaining a stable solar H2 generation.
Organisations
Publications
He T
(2024)
Facet-Engineered BiVO4 Photocatalysts for Water Oxidation: Lifetime Gain Versus Energetic Loss.
in Journal of the American Chemical Society
Wang Q
(2024)
Enhancing Photoelectrochemical Water Oxidation Using Ferromagnetic Materials and Magnetic Fields.
in Journal of the American Chemical Society
Yang M
(2024)
Advancing Hematite Photoanodes for Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting: The Impact of g-C 3 N 4 Supported Ni-CoP on Photogenerated Hole Dynamics
in Advanced Energy Materials
| Description | Key Discoveries and Achievements This research has provided significant new insights into charge dynamics, surface interactions, and long-term stability in oxide-based catalysts, with important implications for solar-driven water splitting and catalytic applications. Our findings challenge long-held assumptions about oxide formation, charge accumulation, and catalytic mechanisms, offering new strategies for optimizing materials used in renewable energy and environmental remediation. 1. Challenging Conventional Views on Oxide Formation and Long-Term Stability udner long term light exposure A key outcome of this work is the discovery that surface oxide formation does not necessarily drive water oxidation or directly alter reaction kinetics, as traditionally believed. Instead, we demonstrated that catalytic performance remains governed by the same energetic levels, regardless of oxide formation. Our research revealed that long-term light exposure alters catalytic activity, but not due to surface reconstruction modifying reaction kinetics. Rather, these changes arise from charge accumulation and redistribution within the material. This challenges previous assumptions and shifts the focus toward controlling charge storage and interface stability over time, rather than simply modifying material structures. These findings provide new strategies for designing more durable and efficient oxide catalysts for photoelectrochemical applications. 2. The Role of Surface Traps in Charge Storage and Catalysis Our research has also redefined the role of surface traps in oxide-based materials. Traditionally, these traps were considered either charge recombination centers or active catalytic sites for water oxidation. However, our findings indicate that they function as charge reservoirs, storing inactive charges that do not immediately participate in catalysis. These stored charges must first be filled before fast, reactive charges become available for efficient water oxidation. Interestingly, our results suggest that a certain optimal density of these charge storage sites may actually enhance catalytic performance, rather than hindering it. This insight opens up new possibilities for engineering oxide-based materials with optimized trap-state densities to improve efficiency in photoelectrochemical reactions. 3. Advancing Spectroscopy Techniques for Catalyst Characterization To investigate these complex charge dynamics, we refined and applied advanced spectroscopic techniques, including transient absorption spectroscopy and operando spectroelectrochemistry. These tools allowed us to track charge carrier behavior at material interfaces, understand surface state contributions to long-term stability, and monitor catalytic site evolution under real operating conditions. However, our study also identified instrumentation limitations, highlighting the need for further specialized equipment and external collaborations to fully correlate spectroscopic findings with catalytic performance. Despite these challenges, the methods developed in this research provide a powerful framework for future studies on photoelectrochemical materials, enabling researchers to develop more efficient and stable catalysts. Future Directions and Impact These discoveries reshape our understanding of oxide-based photoelectrodes and provide new insights for materials science, photoelectrochemistry, and renewable energy technologies. Our findings will be published and disseminated to help researchers and industry specialists design more stable and efficient oxide catalysts. Additionally, the insights gained on charge storage, oxide stability, and interface behavior will benefit sectors working on hydrogen production, sustainable catalysis, and energy storage technologies. While these results provide a strong foundation for future innovation, further research is still required to fully understand the degradation mechanisms of oxide catalysts and to develop long-term stable photoelectrochemical devices. However, the methodologies and knowledge developed through this work will continue to shape advancements in sustainable energy solutions. |
| Exploitation Route | Our research outcomes have broad implications across both academic and industrial sectors. By challenging conventional assumptions about charge dynamics and oxide formation, our findings provide a new framework for designing more efficient and stable materials for renewable energy, environmental remediation, and industrial catalysis. In academia, our insights into charge accumulation, oxide stability, and catalytic efficiency will support researchers in materials science, electrochemistry, and sustainable energy to develop next-generation photoelectrochemical systems. These findings will contribute to advancements in solar-driven water splitting, hydrogen production, and semiconductor interfaces, guiding new material design strategies. In industry, our work is relevant to companies developing photoelectrochemical cells, solar-driven catalysis, and electrolysis systems, where optimizing material efficiency and durability is crucial. Our findings on long-term effect of light and surface behaviour could also benefit sectors working on corrosion-resistant coatings, semiconductor engineering, and advanced electrochemical devices. To maximize impact, we will disseminate our findings through publications, collaborations, and industry engagement, helping translate our discoveries into practical innovations for clean energy technologies and sustainable industrial applications. These efforts will contribute to the global transition toward carbon-neutral energy solutions. |
| Sectors | Chemicals Energy |
| Description | FoNS Researcher Mobility Grant for Postdocs and Fellows |
| Amount | £2,000 (GBP) |
| Organisation | Imperial College London |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Start | 08/2024 |
| End | 10/2024 |
| Description | Solar Chemicals Network Travel Awards |
| Amount | £700 (GBP) |
| Organisation | Solar Fuels Network |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| Country | United Kingdom |
| Start | 11/2023 |
| End | 02/2024 |
| Description | A spectroscopy investigation of Metal Oxide nanoparticles for water oxidation |
| Organisation | Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics |
| Country | China |
| Sector | Private |
| PI Contribution | Our research team contributed by characterizing the samples using Photo-Induced Absorption (PIA) and Transient Absorption Spectroscopy (TAS). Specifically, we applied PIA spectroscopy to investigate the yield and kinetics of charge carriers in facet-engineered BiVO4 (F-BiVO4) and compared these findings with those of a non-faceted sample (NF-BiVO4) under various conditions. Our studies revealed that F-BiVO4 demonstrated superior charge separation behavior and an extended lifetime of charge carriers compared to NF-BiVO4, highlighting the effectiveness of facet engineering in enhancing photocatalytic performance. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Prof. Can Li's group in Dalian successfully prepared PMMA-supported metal oxide nanoparticles, employing facet engineering techniques for some samples while leaving others unmodified. They have completed all preliminary morphological characterizations of these nanoparticles. |
| Impact | This multidisciplinary collaboration, encompassing chemistry, engineering, photocatalysis, and physics, has significantly advanced the study of solar energy conversion using inorganic materials. Key outcomes include enhanced understanding of photocatalytic mechanisms and improved design of photocatalysts, demonstrating the synergy achieved by integrating expertise across different scientific disciplines. This collaboration so far led to a publication in JACS : https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.4c09219 |
| Start Year | 2023 |
| Description | Spetroelectrochemical Investigation of gold nanoclusters |
| Organisation | Flinders University |
| Country | Australia |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | We conducting spectroelectrochemical studies on gold nanoclusters received from our collaborators. We are investigating their behavior when fixed on different substrates, such as metal oxides, under operando conditions for water catalysis. To gain a comprehensive understanding of their properties and catalytic activity, we employ multiple advanced techniques, including Transient Absorption Spectroscopy (TAS), Photoinduced Absorption (PIA), and Spectroelectrochemistry (SEC). These studies aim to provide valuable insights into the electronic and catalytic behavior of gold nanoclusters, contributing to the development of efficient materials for water splitting and renewable energy applications. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Our collaborators are experts in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters of various sizes. They have provided the nanoclusters for our studies and are also contributing their expertise in X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) analysis. Their role in characterizing the surface composition and electronic structure of the nanoclusters is essential for understanding their behavior under different conditions and optimizing their catalytic performance. |
| Impact | As this collaboration is still in its early stages, no formal outputs have been produced yet. However, the research is actively ongoing, with initial investigations into the spectroelectrochemical behavior of gold nanoclusters on different substrates under operando conditions. The collaboration is multi-disciplinary, combining expertise in materials chemistry, electrochemistry, catalysis, and spectroscopy to develop a deeper understanding of nanocluster-based catalytic systems. Future outcomes are expected to include joint publications, conference presentations, and potential advancements in water catalysis research. |
| Start Year | 2024 |
| Description | Spetroelectrochemical Investigation of gold nanoclusters |
| Organisation | University of Adelaide |
| Country | Australia |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | We conducting spectroelectrochemical studies on gold nanoclusters received from our collaborators. We are investigating their behavior when fixed on different substrates, such as metal oxides, under operando conditions for water catalysis. To gain a comprehensive understanding of their properties and catalytic activity, we employ multiple advanced techniques, including Transient Absorption Spectroscopy (TAS), Photoinduced Absorption (PIA), and Spectroelectrochemistry (SEC). These studies aim to provide valuable insights into the electronic and catalytic behavior of gold nanoclusters, contributing to the development of efficient materials for water splitting and renewable energy applications. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Our collaborators are experts in the synthesis of gold nanoclusters of various sizes. They have provided the nanoclusters for our studies and are also contributing their expertise in X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) analysis. Their role in characterizing the surface composition and electronic structure of the nanoclusters is essential for understanding their behavior under different conditions and optimizing their catalytic performance. |
| Impact | As this collaboration is still in its early stages, no formal outputs have been produced yet. However, the research is actively ongoing, with initial investigations into the spectroelectrochemical behavior of gold nanoclusters on different substrates under operando conditions. The collaboration is multi-disciplinary, combining expertise in materials chemistry, electrochemistry, catalysis, and spectroscopy to develop a deeper understanding of nanocluster-based catalytic systems. Future outcomes are expected to include joint publications, conference presentations, and potential advancements in water catalysis research. |
| Start Year | 2024 |
| Description | Temperature and photovoltage studies in Hematite photoanodes |
| Organisation | Boston University |
| Country | United States |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | We are conducting spectroscopic studies on hematite photoanodes provided by Boston University, focusing on the impact of temperature on catalytic activity and the underlying physical phenomena. Additionally, we are exploring how spectroscopic methods can be utilized to probe Fermi level alignment in these electrodes. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Our collaborators at Boston University synthesized the hematite photoanodes and provided their morphological characterization. Their expertise in material fabrication and structural analysis is fundamental to this collaboration, as it enables us to correlate morphology with spectroscopic and electrochemical performance. |
| Impact | Our study has revealed that temperature significantly influences catalytic performance, particularly by affecting back electron recombination, which in turn alters the overall activity of the system. Additionally, our findings indicate that, unlike traditional semiconductor solar cells where photovoltage is primarily governed by electrostatic effects, photovoltage in hematite photoanodes exhibits a more electrochemical nature, strongly dependent on the applied bias. These insights are crucial for optimizing the efficiency of photoelectrochemical systems, providing a deeper understanding of charge dynamics and improving their application in solar energy conversion. |
| Start Year | 2024 |
| Description | Transient Absorption Spectroscopy study on ferromagnetic and metall oxides heterojunction |
| Organisation | Nankai University |
| Country | China |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | Our research team contributed to this collaboration by employing Transient Absorption Spectroscopy (TAS) to characterize the system and investigate the impact of magnetic fields on charge separation and catalysis. This analysis is pivotal for enhancing the efficiency and understanding of photoelectrochemical processes within the developed heterojunction thin films. Additionally, we are extending our investigation to explore the catalytic properties of other metal oxides for the degradation of organic chemicals, such as toluene. We are also studying doped hematite materials to assess their potential for improved catalytic performance. These studies aim to provide a deeper understanding of material behavior under reaction conditions, contributing to advancements in energy conversion and environmental catalysis. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Our partners, the Nankai and Alicante teams, have made contributions by preparing metal oxide/ferromagnetic heterojunction thin films for photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells. They have characterized these thin films, examining their morphology, magnetic effects, and performance, which are crucial aspects for enhancing the efficiency and understanding of PEC cells. |
| Impact | This multidisciplinary collaboration, encompassing chemistry, engineering, photoelectrochemistry, and physics, has significantly advanced the study of solar energy conversion using inorganic materials. A key outcome of this partnership has been the development and characterization of innovative metal oxide/ferromagnetic heterojunction thin films for photoelectrochemical cells, providing new insights into the influence of magnetic fields on charge separation and catalysis. This collaboration has already resulted in a publication in the Journal of the American Chemical Society (JACS): https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.4c13017. Additional investigations, including the study of organic oxidation reactions (e.g., toluene degradation) and the catalytic performance of doped hematite materials, are still ongoing, with future outcomes expected to further expand the impact of this research. |
| Start Year | 2023 |
| Description | Transient Absorption Spectroscopy study on ferromagnetic and metall oxides heterojunction |
| Organisation | University of Alicante |
| Country | Spain |
| Sector | Academic/University |
| PI Contribution | Our research team contributed to this collaboration by employing Transient Absorption Spectroscopy (TAS) to characterize the system and investigate the impact of magnetic fields on charge separation and catalysis. This analysis is pivotal for enhancing the efficiency and understanding of photoelectrochemical processes within the developed heterojunction thin films. Additionally, we are extending our investigation to explore the catalytic properties of other metal oxides for the degradation of organic chemicals, such as toluene. We are also studying doped hematite materials to assess their potential for improved catalytic performance. These studies aim to provide a deeper understanding of material behavior under reaction conditions, contributing to advancements in energy conversion and environmental catalysis. |
| Collaborator Contribution | Our partners, the Nankai and Alicante teams, have made contributions by preparing metal oxide/ferromagnetic heterojunction thin films for photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells. They have characterized these thin films, examining their morphology, magnetic effects, and performance, which are crucial aspects for enhancing the efficiency and understanding of PEC cells. |
| Impact | This multidisciplinary collaboration, encompassing chemistry, engineering, photoelectrochemistry, and physics, has significantly advanced the study of solar energy conversion using inorganic materials. A key outcome of this partnership has been the development and characterization of innovative metal oxide/ferromagnetic heterojunction thin films for photoelectrochemical cells, providing new insights into the influence of magnetic fields on charge separation and catalysis. This collaboration has already resulted in a publication in the Journal of the American Chemical Society (JACS): https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.4c13017. Additional investigations, including the study of organic oxidation reactions (e.g., toluene degradation) and the catalytic performance of doped hematite materials, are still ongoing, with future outcomes expected to further expand the impact of this research. |
| Start Year | 2023 |
| Description | 1st UK Solar Chemicals Network Symposium |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | National |
| Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
| Results and Impact | We contribute to Solar Chemicals Network (SCN) Symposium by presenting our latest research on "Photoactivation: Manipulating the Charge Dynamics of Metal Oxides Photoelectrodes with Light." Our work emphasizes the potential for photoactivation techniques to significantly improve the performance of solar energy devices by optimizing charge dynamics. The symposium was attended by experts from various sectors, including PhD students, postdoctoral researchers, journal editors, and representatives from companies interested in the latest advancements in solar chemicals. This diverse audience facilitated a multidisciplinary dialogue, highlighting the current challenges and future directions in solar energy research. Our participation not only allowed us to showcase our findings but also to engage with other leading figures in the field, contributing to the ongoing efforts to develop sustainable solar energy solutions. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| URL | https://www.solarchemicals.co.uk/copy-of-1st-scn-symposium |
| Description | CPE Solar [and Electro] Fuels Workshop |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Local |
| Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
| Results and Impact | At the CPE Solar and Electro Fuels Workshop, we had the opportunity to present our research focused on "Exploring the Impact of Interfaces and Environmental Factors on Water Oxidation Kinetics in Metal Oxides." The audience, primarily consisting of PhD students, showed great engagement with the topic. This presentation aimed to show several ways in which interfaces and environmental variables influence the efficiency and kinetics of water oxidation processes in metal oxides, a critical reaction for the production of solar fuels. The engagement of the audience highlighted the relevance and interest in understanding these complex interactions. This workshop served as a platform for sharing cutting-edge research and fostering discussions among emerging scientists about the challenges and opportunities in the development of more efficient solar fuels systems |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
| URL | https://www.imperial.ac.uk/events/167387/cpe-workshop-on-solar-fuels/ |
| Description | Chemistry and Materials Discovery Day at The Invention Room |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Local |
| Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
| Results and Impact | We participated in a family-friendly discovery day at The Invention Rooms, engaging between 50-100 children (ages 5-11) and their families in interactive activities on energy and hydrogen. Through hands-on demonstrations, we sparked curiosity about sustainable energy solutions, making complex concepts accessible and fun. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| Description | Future Energy Festival 2023 |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Local |
| Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
| Results and Impact | During this event, we contributed by "Shining a Light on Materials for Solar Energy Conversion." Our stand aimed to explain our research on green hydrogen to the general audience, explaining in layperson's terms how we utilize spectroscopy to investigate the process of water splitting. By breaking down complex scientific concepts into more understandable content, we sought to engage and educate the public on the importance of solar energy conversion and its potential to provide a sustainable source of green hydrogen. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
| URL | https://www.imperial.ac.uk/events/164378/save-the-date-energy-futures-lab-future-energy-festival-202... |
| Description | Global Hydrogen Production Technologies Center kickoff meeting |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A formal working group, expert panel or dialogue |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Other audiences |
| Results and Impact | As part of the Global Hydrogen Production Technologies (HyPT) Center, an international partnership sponsored by the US, Australia, Canada, and the UK, we play a pivotal role in the development of inorganic photocatalyst materials for hydrogen production. This collaborative effort is distinguished as the first and currently unique National Science Foundation-funded hydrogen research initiative, encompassing seven countries, 20 universities, around 100 researchers, and an advisory board of 10 members from various sectors. Our participation was highlighted through workshops and discussions focused on initiating our research collaborations with universities from the USA, Canada, Australia, and the UK. These sessions were instrumental in laying the groundwork for our project, facilitating the exchange of ideas, and setting strategic directions for leveraging the unique capabilities of each partner institution. The event not only showcased our commitment to advancing hydrogen technology through international collaboration but also underscored the importance of developing innovative photocatalyst materials. T |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| URL | https://intheloop.engineering.asu.edu/2024/02/05/global-hydrogen-production-technologies-hypt-center... |
| Description | Great Exhibition Road Festival |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Local |
| Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
| Results and Impact | In collaboration with architecture firm Cookies, we showcased the benefits of developing durable cement through green methods that significantly reduce CO2 emissions. Throughout the day, a series of workshops were organized, engaging children aged 5 to 15 in the hands-on activity of molding various shapes using this "green cement." This interactive experience provided a practical understanding of the material's environmental advantages. The initiative aimed to foster awareness among the younger generation about sustainable building materials and their critical role in protecting the environment. The workshops sparked curiosity among participants about sustainable practices in construction. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2023 |
| URL | https://www.greatexhibitionroadfestival.co.uk/event/down-earth/?backto=whats-on |
| Description | Great Exhibition Road Festival 2024 |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | Participation in an activity, workshop or similar |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | Local |
| Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
| Results and Impact | As part of the Great Exhibition Road Festival, we set up an interactive stand to showcase the benefits of solar energy, covering topics from solar cells to hydrogen production and hydrogen-powered vehicles. The exhibit was designed to engage both children and adults: interactive activities and demonstrations were available for younger audiences, while informative posters and discussions provided in-depth explanations for adults. The goal was to raise awareness of sustainable energy technologies and inspire interest in renewable energy solutions. The exhibit sparked curiosity and engagement, with many visitors asking insightful questions. Feedback from attendees indicated increased interest in solar and hydrogen energy, particularly among younger visitors who enjoyed the hands-on activities. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| URL | https://www.imperial.ac.uk/events/177858/great-exhibition-road-festival-2024/ |
| Description | H2 scenarios workshop at Cranfield University |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A formal working group, expert panel or dialogue |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | National |
| Primary Audience | Study participants or study members |
| Results and Impact | We participated in the H2 Scenarios Workshop as experts in photocatalysis systems, contributing insights into the potential role of photocatalytic hydrogen production in future hydrogen economies. Our discussions focused on the benefits of photocatalysis, including its ability to leverage solar energy for sustainable hydrogen generation, its potential integration with existing renewable energy infrastructures, and its feasibility in decentralized and off-grid applications. Additionally, we explored the key challenges and limitations of this technology, as well as the specific scenarios where photocatalysis could be most effectively applied within hydrogen production systems. Our contributions helped shape the broader discussion on technology selection, resource requirements, and system implementation, fostering a more comprehensive understanding of where photocatalytic approaches fit within the wider H2 production landscape. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| Description | Renewable Energy: Solar Fuels Gordon Research Conference |
| Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
| Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
| Geographic Reach | International |
| Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
| Results and Impact | At the Renewable Energy: Solar Fuels Gordon Research Conference, we presented our research through a poster titled "A Spectroelectrochemical Study of Metal Oxides Photoelectrodes under Long-Term Illumination." Our study focused on the stability and efficiency of metal oxides in photoelectrocatalysis under prolonged illumination, addressing key challenges in the durability and performance of solar fuel generation components. The presentation garnered significant interest from a diverse audience of PhD students, postdocs, industry professionals, and professors. These interactions provided valuable feedback and laid the groundwork for multiple collaborations, notably initiating partnerships between groups from Berkley National Lab, Yale, Boston University, and Imperial College London. |
| Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2024 |
| URL | https://www.grc.org/renewable-energy-solar-fuels-conference/2024/ |