BOiliNg flows in SmAll and mIcrochannels (BONSAI): From Fundamentals to Design
Lead Research Organisation:
Imperial College London
Department Name: Chemical Engineering
Abstract
BONSAI is an ambitious 3-year research project aimed at investigating the fundamental heat and mass transfer features of boiling flows in miniaturised channels. It combines cutting-edge experiments based on space/time-resolved diagnostics, with high-fidelity interface-resolving numerical simulations, to ultimately provide validated thermal-design tools for high-performance compact evaporators. The proposed project assembles multidisciplinary expertise of investigators at Imperial College London, Brunel University London, and the University of Nottingham, with support from 3 world-leading research institutes: Alan Turing Institute, CERN (Switzerland) and VIR2AL; and 11 industry partners: Aavid Boyd Thermacore, Alfa Laval, CALGAVIN, HEXAG&PIN, HiETA, Hubbard/Daikin, IBM, Oxford nanoSystems, Ricardo, TMD and TTP.
The recent trend towards device miniaturisation driven by the microelectronics industry has placed an increasing demand on removing higher thermal loads, of order of MW/m2, from areas of order cm2. In some applications (e.g. refrigeration) new 'green' refrigerants are needed, but in small volumes due to flammability or cost, while in others (e.g. batteries for EV and other applications) non-uniform or unsteady heat dissipation is highly detrimental to performance and lifetime. Flow boiling in multi-microchannel evaporators promises to meet such challenging requirements with low fluid volumes, also allowing better temperature uniformity and smaller pumping power, in systems that go well beyond the current state-of-the-art. Due to significant industrial (heat exchange) and environmental (efficient energy use) interest, the understanding of boiling heat transfer has improved in recent years, with focus on flow pattern transitions and characteristics, pressure drop, and heat transfer performance. However, our current understanding is simply insufficient to facilitate the wider use of these micro-heat-exchangers in industry, which remains unexploited.
BONSAI has been tailored specifically to address the fundamental phenomena underlying boiling in miniaturised devices and their relevance to industrial design. The challenges to be addressed include the impact of channel shape and surface characteristics on flow instabilities, heat transfer and pressure drop, and the relationship between the time-dependent evolution of the liquid-vapour interface, thin liquid-film dynamics, flow field, appearance of dry vapour patches, hot spots, and local heat transfer characteristics. The extensive experimental/numerical database generated will be exploited via theoretical and novel machine-learning methods to develop physics-based design tools for predicting the effects of industrially-relevant thermohydraulic parameters on system performance. The collaboration with our partners will ensure alignment with industrial needs and accelerate technology transfer to industry. In addition, HiETA will provide Metal Additive Manufacturing heat sinks that will be assessed against embossing technologies as ways of mass-producing microchannel heat exchangers, Oxford nanoSystems will provide nano-structured surface coatings, and IBM will support visits to their Research Labs focussed on efficient parallelisation of the numerical solver and scale-out studies.
The proposed research will not only enable a wider adoption of two-phase thermal solutions and hence the meeting of current and future needs across industrial sectors, but also will lead to more efficient thermal management of data-centres with associated reduction in energy consumption and carbon footprint, and the recovery and reuse of waste heat that is currently being rejected. This will constitute an important step towards meeting the UK's emission targets by 2050. Additionally, BONSAI will integrate with EPSRC Prosperity Outcomes of Delivery Plan 2016-20 and enable technological advances in relation to the Manufacturing the Future theme, contributing to a Productive and Resilient Nation.
The recent trend towards device miniaturisation driven by the microelectronics industry has placed an increasing demand on removing higher thermal loads, of order of MW/m2, from areas of order cm2. In some applications (e.g. refrigeration) new 'green' refrigerants are needed, but in small volumes due to flammability or cost, while in others (e.g. batteries for EV and other applications) non-uniform or unsteady heat dissipation is highly detrimental to performance and lifetime. Flow boiling in multi-microchannel evaporators promises to meet such challenging requirements with low fluid volumes, also allowing better temperature uniformity and smaller pumping power, in systems that go well beyond the current state-of-the-art. Due to significant industrial (heat exchange) and environmental (efficient energy use) interest, the understanding of boiling heat transfer has improved in recent years, with focus on flow pattern transitions and characteristics, pressure drop, and heat transfer performance. However, our current understanding is simply insufficient to facilitate the wider use of these micro-heat-exchangers in industry, which remains unexploited.
BONSAI has been tailored specifically to address the fundamental phenomena underlying boiling in miniaturised devices and their relevance to industrial design. The challenges to be addressed include the impact of channel shape and surface characteristics on flow instabilities, heat transfer and pressure drop, and the relationship between the time-dependent evolution of the liquid-vapour interface, thin liquid-film dynamics, flow field, appearance of dry vapour patches, hot spots, and local heat transfer characteristics. The extensive experimental/numerical database generated will be exploited via theoretical and novel machine-learning methods to develop physics-based design tools for predicting the effects of industrially-relevant thermohydraulic parameters on system performance. The collaboration with our partners will ensure alignment with industrial needs and accelerate technology transfer to industry. In addition, HiETA will provide Metal Additive Manufacturing heat sinks that will be assessed against embossing technologies as ways of mass-producing microchannel heat exchangers, Oxford nanoSystems will provide nano-structured surface coatings, and IBM will support visits to their Research Labs focussed on efficient parallelisation of the numerical solver and scale-out studies.
The proposed research will not only enable a wider adoption of two-phase thermal solutions and hence the meeting of current and future needs across industrial sectors, but also will lead to more efficient thermal management of data-centres with associated reduction in energy consumption and carbon footprint, and the recovery and reuse of waste heat that is currently being rejected. This will constitute an important step towards meeting the UK's emission targets by 2050. Additionally, BONSAI will integrate with EPSRC Prosperity Outcomes of Delivery Plan 2016-20 and enable technological advances in relation to the Manufacturing the Future theme, contributing to a Productive and Resilient Nation.
Planned Impact
The UK has a strong commercial presence in the production of power electronics and thermal solutions for power management. It is estimated that the global heat-exchanger market will reach £18B by 2023 from £12B in 2018, driven by the fast growth of manufacturing, chemicals, and construction industries. BONSAI will have a direct impact on these markets by allowing heat exchangers to operate with much greater efficiency, thus enabling step-change reductions to the exchange surfaces, heat-sink volumes, and thus material costs, reduced quantity of coolant or refrigerant in target systems, higher thermal uniformity, and lower pumping power.
The assessment of additive manufacturing techniques and of their impact on evaporator performance will provide new avenues for the mass-production of thermally-efficient thermal devices. Data-centres currently consume about 1% of the UK's total electricity, and it is estimated that by 2020 they will emit as much CO2 as the airline industry. On-chip two-phase cooling may reduce the necessary pumping power to circulate the coolant and allow the reuse of data-centre waste heat in secondary applications, thus reducing their carbon footprint. BONSAI will also enable next-generation heating/cooling technologies with low-volume eco-friendly fluids, reducing energy and emissions, and battery technologies via efficient thermal management, in line with UK government strategic investments (e.g. £246M Faraday challenge).
Thermal engineers, consultants and operators who are involved in the analysis, design, manufacture, decision-making and operation of heat-exchange systems will benefit significantly from game-changing technologies that will enable them to develop smarter, more environmentally-friendly, reliable and cost-efficient designs. This will be effected by providing new insight into fundamental flow and heat transfer mechanisms and impact of the flow regime; best channel configurations to reduce the risk of flow instabilities, maldistribution and optimise pressure drop and heat transfer; invaluable space/time-resolved data of dramatic need for model validation and design-code development; validated theoretical and computational models implementing the most accurate descriptions of the underlying phenomena, amongst other. Due to the ubiquitous utilisation of two-phase flows in industrial processes, the knowledge gained with the proposed research will be widely transferable, e.g. to the pharmaceutical industry (improving lab-on-a-chip devices), renewable energy sector (evaporative cooling of fuel cells, PV, batteries), oil-and-gas industry (dynamics of slug and annular flows), as well as biomedical applications (cleansing medical tools using capillary forces).
BONSAI will produce skilled UK-based experts in heat transfer, phase change, multiphase flows, experiments, numerical simulation, data management and computer science, who will engage in R&D and other contributions to UK industry, public education and social development. These opportunities will enable effective professional competencies towards future long-term employability. The numerical solver developed during the project will set new standards on the simulation of thin film flows and boiling. The experimental setup will inspire other experimental research, and multidisciplinary skills of staff and lab technicians will be enhanced. Private and public sector researchers will be able to undertake related proof-of-concept tests that will improve the Universities' track record and public visibility.
The involvement of industry will ensure that our objectives remain focused on aspects of practical importance, while still answering fundamental questions and enhancing the understanding of essential phenomena in miniature channels. The UK's economic competitiveness stands to be enhanced through this collaborative project, with the potential to attract international investment from other companies leading to new joint industrial projects.
The assessment of additive manufacturing techniques and of their impact on evaporator performance will provide new avenues for the mass-production of thermally-efficient thermal devices. Data-centres currently consume about 1% of the UK's total electricity, and it is estimated that by 2020 they will emit as much CO2 as the airline industry. On-chip two-phase cooling may reduce the necessary pumping power to circulate the coolant and allow the reuse of data-centre waste heat in secondary applications, thus reducing their carbon footprint. BONSAI will also enable next-generation heating/cooling technologies with low-volume eco-friendly fluids, reducing energy and emissions, and battery technologies via efficient thermal management, in line with UK government strategic investments (e.g. £246M Faraday challenge).
Thermal engineers, consultants and operators who are involved in the analysis, design, manufacture, decision-making and operation of heat-exchange systems will benefit significantly from game-changing technologies that will enable them to develop smarter, more environmentally-friendly, reliable and cost-efficient designs. This will be effected by providing new insight into fundamental flow and heat transfer mechanisms and impact of the flow regime; best channel configurations to reduce the risk of flow instabilities, maldistribution and optimise pressure drop and heat transfer; invaluable space/time-resolved data of dramatic need for model validation and design-code development; validated theoretical and computational models implementing the most accurate descriptions of the underlying phenomena, amongst other. Due to the ubiquitous utilisation of two-phase flows in industrial processes, the knowledge gained with the proposed research will be widely transferable, e.g. to the pharmaceutical industry (improving lab-on-a-chip devices), renewable energy sector (evaporative cooling of fuel cells, PV, batteries), oil-and-gas industry (dynamics of slug and annular flows), as well as biomedical applications (cleansing medical tools using capillary forces).
BONSAI will produce skilled UK-based experts in heat transfer, phase change, multiphase flows, experiments, numerical simulation, data management and computer science, who will engage in R&D and other contributions to UK industry, public education and social development. These opportunities will enable effective professional competencies towards future long-term employability. The numerical solver developed during the project will set new standards on the simulation of thin film flows and boiling. The experimental setup will inspire other experimental research, and multidisciplinary skills of staff and lab technicians will be enhanced. Private and public sector researchers will be able to undertake related proof-of-concept tests that will improve the Universities' track record and public visibility.
The involvement of industry will ensure that our objectives remain focused on aspects of practical importance, while still answering fundamental questions and enhancing the understanding of essential phenomena in miniature channels. The UK's economic competitiveness stands to be enhanced through this collaborative project, with the potential to attract international investment from other companies leading to new joint industrial projects.
Organisations
- Imperial College London (Lead Research Organisation)
- UNIVERSITY OF NOTTINGHAM (Collaboration)
- Hubbard Products (Collaboration)
- BRUNEL UNIVERSITY LONDON (Collaboration)
- IBM Research (Project Partner)
- TMD Technologies (United Kingdom) (Project Partner)
- VIR2AL (Two-Phase Flow & Heat Transfer) (Project Partner)
- Newcastle University (Project Partner)
- Ricardo (United Kingdom) (Project Partner)
- Thermacore (United Kingdom) (Project Partner)
- Hubbard Products (United Kingdom) (Project Partner)
- Oxford NanoSystems (United Kingdom) (Project Partner)
- CAL Gavin Ltd (Project Partner)
- HiETA Technologies (United Kingdom) (Project Partner)
- Technology Partnership (United Kingdom) (Project Partner)
- The Alan Turing Institute (Project Partner)
- European Organization for Nuclear Research (Project Partner)
- Alfa Laval Ltd (Project Partner)
Publications
A I
(2024)
Enhanced electrolytic immersion cooling for thermal crisis mitigation in high-energy-density systems
in Energy Conversion and Management
Ajaev V
(2021)
PREFACE TO SPECIAL ISSUE: HEAT TRANSFER,WAVES, AND VORTEX PHENOMENA IN TWO-PHASE FLOWS
in Interfacial Phenomena and Heat Transfer
Al-Zaidi A
(2022)
Flow boiling in copper and aluminium microchannels
in International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
Alagumalai A
(2022)
Nano-engineered pathways for advanced thermal energy storage systems
in Cell Reports Physical Science
Collignon R
(2022)
Heat Transfer Enhancement in Wavy Films Falling on a Heated Inclined Plate
in SSRN Electronic Journal
Dirker J
(2022)
The effect of circumferentially non-uniform heat flux on flow boiling heat transfer in a horizontal tube
in International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
Dirker J
(2021)
Influence of inlet vapour quality perturbations on the transient response of flow-boiling heat transfer
in International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer
Description | A novel single-dye multispectral planar laser-induced fluorescence (SDMS-PLIF) technique capable of whole-field temperature-field measurements has been developed in this research, and has been successfully applied in the spatiotemporally resolved temperature measurements in flow boiling. This technique overcomes the limitations of the traditional one-colour PLIF (single dye) and two-colour PLIF (two or more dyes) techniques that the concentration or concentration ratio of the dyes can be variable due to inhomogeneous dye distributions in multiphase flows such as boiling and improves the temperature measurement reliability. The efficacy of the method was demonstrated in the problem of single vapour bubble formation on a heated wall in a subcooled liquid flow inside a vertical minichannel. The features of the observed bubble-induced mixing in the nucleate boiling regime were identified through temperature fluctuation measurements in the thermal boundary layer. |
Exploitation Route | The research findings will benefit the research community of advanced non-intrusive optical diagnostics in multiphase flow and can be used in accurate spatiotemporally resolved temperature field measurements in relevant industrial applications, such as aerospace, electronics and energy engineering. |
Sectors | Aerospace Defence and Marine Electronics Energy Environment Manufacturing including Industrial Biotechology |
Title | BONSAI facility |
Description | The experimental facility is designed to elucidate on the fundamental physics of two-phase heat transfer process under various flow boiling regimes. This is realized by making spatio-temporally resolved measurements of various flow field variables like temperature and velocity using state-of-the-art light-based diagnostic techniques like two-colour laser-induced fluorescence (2C-LIF), particle image velocimetry (PIV), and infra-red (IR) thermometry. The experimental facility is optically accessible from all four directions and uses a thin sapphire glass coated with Indium-Tin-Oxide (ITO) for a test substrate. The conductive ITO coating is used to heat the fluid to boiling conditions at specific heat flux values which is one of the control parameters of the experiments. Other control parameters such as mass flow rate, inlet vapour fraction, and temperature of fluid in the inlet of test section are appropriately controlled by specific devices like mass flow controller and inline tubular pre-heaters etc. |
Type Of Material | Improvements to research infrastructure |
Year Produced | 2021 |
Provided To Others? | Yes |
Impact | The result of this work is expected to provide fundamental insights about various heat transfer mechanisms that occurs during flow boiling in mini/micro channels. This is then used to develop a roadmap or strategy to enhance heat transfer rates. The experimental data will also be used for benchmarking numerical simulations of flow boiling to be undertaken by collaborators from the University of Nottingham. |
Title | Flow boiling visualisation database |
Description | A database for visualisation of flow boiling in a vertical miniaturised channel is established. It contains the nucleate bubble flow regime in subcooled flow boiling as well as the slug flow and annular flow regimes in saturated flow boiling with various flow conditions such as heat flux, mass flux, and vapour quality. |
Type Of Material | Database/Collection of data |
Year Produced | 2023 |
Provided To Others? | No |
Impact | This database can be used to analyse the hydrodynamic characteristics of flow boiling in different flow regimes, such as the bubble dynamics in the nucleate bubble flow regime, the liquid film evaporation in the slug flow regime, and the liquid-vapour interfacial interactions in the annular flow regime. |
Title | LaVision DaVIS model |
Description | Time-resolved dynamic codes in MATLAB for laser-induced fluorescence, particle image velocimetry and infra-red thermometry measurements. |
Type Of Material | Computer model/algorithm |
Year Produced | 2021 |
Provided To Others? | No |
Impact | The Licensed software "DaVIS" from LaVision is used to operate/control the laser systems, record the images from multiple cameras, and pre-process and extract the images to MATLAB compatible files for post-processing. Time-resolved dynamic codes in MATLAB for post-processing of images obtained through laser-induced fluorescence, particle image velocimetry and infra-red thermometry measurements. |
Title | Post-processing MATLAB scripts |
Description | MATLAB-based post-processing scripts will be used to quantify various integral heat transfer parameters. |
Type Of Material | Computer model/algorithm |
Year Produced | 2021 |
Provided To Others? | No |
Impact | The model can be used to quantify various integral heat transfer parameters. |
Title | Single-dye multispectral planar laser-induced fluorescence (SDMS-PLIF) database |
Description | A database for the development and application of the single-dye multispectral planar laser-induced fluorescence (SDMS-PLIF) technique is established. It contains the spectra data for the selected dye and fluid as well as the calibration and measurement data for its application in flow boiling. |
Type Of Material | Database/Collection of data |
Year Produced | 2023 |
Provided To Others? | No |
Impact | This database can be used to develop the single-dye multispectral planar laser-induced fluorescence (SDMS-PLIF) technique and verify its applicability in spatiotemporally resolved temperature measurements in flow boiling |
Description | Collaboration on BONSAI project |
Organisation | Brunel University London |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | BONSAI features 6 interconnected work packages (WP) with well-defined deliverables and milestones; Professor Christos Markides will be responsible for overall coordination and project management (WP1). Experimental activities at Imperial College London will be undertaken by RA (Dr. Suryanarayan Lakshminarayanan) & PhD (Mr. Zengchao Chen), who will apply complementary approaches, focusing on different flow aspects and applying a suite of different measurement techniques (2-colour Laser-induced fluorescence, Particle Image Velocimetry and high-speed videography). Matching numerical simulations will be conducted by Professor Mirco Magnini and Professor Omar Matar to compare with experiments and perform parametric studies. The new database will be merged with existing ones from Brunel University London. |
Collaborator Contribution | Develop unique experimental capabilities and advanced optical-diagnostic methods capable of high-spatiotemporal-resolution, simultaneous measurements of interfacial, wall and bulk-flow quantities, and of important global features of boiling flows in small/microchannels. Apply the methodology developed to produce a detailed map of, spatiotemporal phase, velocity, and temperature information. |
Impact | NA. Since the facility is currently being developed in Imperial College London, no experiments have been conducted so far. However, benchmarking experiments are expected to tentatively commence from late March 2022. |
Start Year | 2020 |
Description | Collaboration on BONSAI project |
Organisation | University of Nottingham |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | BONSAI features 6 interconnected work packages (WP) with well-defined deliverables and milestones; Professor Christos Markides will be responsible for overall coordination and project management (WP1). Experimental activities at Imperial College London will be undertaken by RA (Dr. Suryanarayan Lakshminarayanan) & PhD (Mr. Zengchao Chen), who will apply complementary approaches, focusing on different flow aspects and applying a suite of different measurement techniques (2-colour Laser-induced fluorescence, Particle Image Velocimetry and high-speed videography). Matching numerical simulations will be conducted by Professor Mirco Magnini and Professor Omar Matar to compare with experiments and perform parametric studies. The new database will be merged with existing ones from Brunel University London. |
Collaborator Contribution | Develop unique experimental capabilities and advanced optical-diagnostic methods capable of high-spatiotemporal-resolution, simultaneous measurements of interfacial, wall and bulk-flow quantities, and of important global features of boiling flows in small/microchannels. Apply the methodology developed to produce a detailed map of, spatiotemporal phase, velocity, and temperature information. |
Impact | NA. Since the facility is currently being developed in Imperial College London, no experiments have been conducted so far. However, benchmarking experiments are expected to tentatively commence from late March 2022. |
Start Year | 2020 |
Description | Collaboration on micro-channel heat exchangers |
Organisation | Hubbard Products |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Private |
PI Contribution | This collaboration is at very early stages. We intend to support the R&D activities of Hubbard in the area of micro-channel heat exchangers for refrigeration equipment, by providing proved correlations for heat transfer from our experimental and numerical work. |
Collaborator Contribution | Hubbard Products will ensure the results and outputs from the work in BONSAI will find applications in industry, in particular refrigeration equipment. |
Impact | On-going collaboration has just started. |
Start Year | 2022 |