Rational Design, Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Benzimidazoles; Towards a Novel Therapy Selectively Targeting C. neoformans beta-tubulin
Lead Research Organisation:
University of Liverpool
Department Name: Chemistry
Abstract
The Need:
Cryptococcus neoformans (C. neoformans) is a yeast like fungus which manifests as meningitis and less frequently pneumonia within the human body. In sub-Saharan Africa C. neoformans causes more deaths annually than tuberculosis. C. neoformans is the most common cause of fungal infection in patients with AIDS and there are an estimated 1 million cases of cryptococcal meningitis worldwide each year. The current drugs used to treat this disease are a 2 week course of amphotericin B and 5-flucytosine followed by a long term course of fluconazole. Amphotericin B and 5-flucytosine are associated with toxicity and fluconazole suppresses the growth of the fungus but does not completely remove it from the body. There is a therefore a great need for new drugs to treat C. neoformans infections. These drugs must have less toxicity and work better against the disease. The aim of this proposal is to complete the early stage drug discovery activities required to ultimately develop new drugs for cryptococcal meningoencephalitis that can be used in sub-Saharan Africa.
The Concept:
It has previously been reported within scientific papers that a class of compound called the benzimidazoles (widely used to treat worm infections in humans and as fungicides in agriculture) have good activity against C. neoformans in a laboratory and this has subsequently been confirmed by work here at the University of Liverpool (UoL). Benzimidazoles have been shown to interfere with cell division in C. neoformans through binding to beta-tubulin. Beta-tubulin is a protein that is essential for cell division and growth, when benzimidazoles bind to beta-tubulin the fungal cell can no longer grow. More recently, unpublished studies carried out at UoL have shown flubendazole to be active against C. neoformans in the mouse model. Humans also have beta-tubulin so it is essential that any new drug developed against the beta-tubulin target is selective for C. neoformans beta-tubulin. Medicinal chemistry (modification of the chemical structure of a drug) can be used to improve both selectivity for beta-tubulin and activity against C. neoformans.
The Solution:
Identification of an active class of compound, against a known target, with established whole cell C. neoformans and animal model activity provides an excellent starting point for medicinal chemistry modification. To date benzimidazole compounds have never undergone medicinal chemistry optimisation to establish beta-tubulin selectivity or to improve C. neoformans activity. The two most commonly use benzimidazole drugs (Flubendazole and albendazole) are extensively metabolised within the body and have a limited ability to move from the stomach into the blood stream. New compounds will be designed using information from computer models to predict how they are likely to behave within the body. In order to improve the safety profile of the newly designed compounds their selectivity for C. neoformans beta-tubulin over human beta-tubulin will be measured in the laboratory (alongside activity against C. neoformans) and computer models of the binding sites of the two tubulins used to look at how new compounds are likely to bind better with C. neoformans beta-tubulin. Once C. neoformans activity, selectivity for beta-tubulin and improved levels of circulating drug have been established the compounds will move into a mouse model of C. neoformans infection.
Impact:
The long term aim is to develop a single therapy that does not require subsequent long term treatment with fluconazole and that can be given both orally and by injection. Given the number of patients affected by C. neoformans this project has the potential to have a dramatic beneficial impact on individuals and societies.
Development:
Compounds demonstrating activity in the mouse model will form the basis of further funding applications to progress the new drugs through the drug development pipeline.
Cryptococcus neoformans (C. neoformans) is a yeast like fungus which manifests as meningitis and less frequently pneumonia within the human body. In sub-Saharan Africa C. neoformans causes more deaths annually than tuberculosis. C. neoformans is the most common cause of fungal infection in patients with AIDS and there are an estimated 1 million cases of cryptococcal meningitis worldwide each year. The current drugs used to treat this disease are a 2 week course of amphotericin B and 5-flucytosine followed by a long term course of fluconazole. Amphotericin B and 5-flucytosine are associated with toxicity and fluconazole suppresses the growth of the fungus but does not completely remove it from the body. There is a therefore a great need for new drugs to treat C. neoformans infections. These drugs must have less toxicity and work better against the disease. The aim of this proposal is to complete the early stage drug discovery activities required to ultimately develop new drugs for cryptococcal meningoencephalitis that can be used in sub-Saharan Africa.
The Concept:
It has previously been reported within scientific papers that a class of compound called the benzimidazoles (widely used to treat worm infections in humans and as fungicides in agriculture) have good activity against C. neoformans in a laboratory and this has subsequently been confirmed by work here at the University of Liverpool (UoL). Benzimidazoles have been shown to interfere with cell division in C. neoformans through binding to beta-tubulin. Beta-tubulin is a protein that is essential for cell division and growth, when benzimidazoles bind to beta-tubulin the fungal cell can no longer grow. More recently, unpublished studies carried out at UoL have shown flubendazole to be active against C. neoformans in the mouse model. Humans also have beta-tubulin so it is essential that any new drug developed against the beta-tubulin target is selective for C. neoformans beta-tubulin. Medicinal chemistry (modification of the chemical structure of a drug) can be used to improve both selectivity for beta-tubulin and activity against C. neoformans.
The Solution:
Identification of an active class of compound, against a known target, with established whole cell C. neoformans and animal model activity provides an excellent starting point for medicinal chemistry modification. To date benzimidazole compounds have never undergone medicinal chemistry optimisation to establish beta-tubulin selectivity or to improve C. neoformans activity. The two most commonly use benzimidazole drugs (Flubendazole and albendazole) are extensively metabolised within the body and have a limited ability to move from the stomach into the blood stream. New compounds will be designed using information from computer models to predict how they are likely to behave within the body. In order to improve the safety profile of the newly designed compounds their selectivity for C. neoformans beta-tubulin over human beta-tubulin will be measured in the laboratory (alongside activity against C. neoformans) and computer models of the binding sites of the two tubulins used to look at how new compounds are likely to bind better with C. neoformans beta-tubulin. Once C. neoformans activity, selectivity for beta-tubulin and improved levels of circulating drug have been established the compounds will move into a mouse model of C. neoformans infection.
Impact:
The long term aim is to develop a single therapy that does not require subsequent long term treatment with fluconazole and that can be given both orally and by injection. Given the number of patients affected by C. neoformans this project has the potential to have a dramatic beneficial impact on individuals and societies.
Development:
Compounds demonstrating activity in the mouse model will form the basis of further funding applications to progress the new drugs through the drug development pipeline.
Technical Summary
The aim of this proposal is to carry out the early stage drug discovery activities required to ultimately develop new agents for cryptococcal meningoencephalitis for use in sub-Saharan Africa. The project addresses the need for novel therapies to treat the systemic fungal infection C. neoformans that causes lethal meningoencephalitis. In sub-Saharan Africa C. neoformans causes more deaths annually than tuberculosis and is the most common cause of systemic mycosis in patients with AIDS. An estimated 1 million cases of cryptococcal meningitis occur worldwide each year.
It has been reported that selected benzimidazole compounds have good in vitro potency against C. neoformans and this has been confirmed through our own in house MIC screening. Benzimidazoles have been shown to disrupt mitosis in C. neoformans through binding to the beta-tubulin subunit of microtubules. Subsequently the C. neoformans beta-tubulin genes have been characterised. More recently, unpublished studies have shown flubendazole to be active in vivo against C. neoformans in the mouse model.
Identification of an active class of compound, against a known target, with established in vitro and in vivo activity provides a solid platform for a targeted medicinal chemistry programme. The benzimidazole template has never been optimised for C. neoformans activity or target selectivity before. Flubendazole and albendazole suffer from extensive drug metabolism and have limiting pharmacokinetic (DMPK) properties. As such new analogues design will be guided by DMPK predictive algorithms, whole cell activity, selectivity for C. neoformans beta-tubulin over human beta-tubulin (measured in vitro and modelled) and measured in vitro DMPK. Compounds satisfying set criteria values will move into an in vivo PK/PD mouse models of C. neoformans infection. Compounds active in the mouse model demonstrating suitable PK will form the basis of funding applications for candidate selection enabling studies and beyond.
It has been reported that selected benzimidazole compounds have good in vitro potency against C. neoformans and this has been confirmed through our own in house MIC screening. Benzimidazoles have been shown to disrupt mitosis in C. neoformans through binding to the beta-tubulin subunit of microtubules. Subsequently the C. neoformans beta-tubulin genes have been characterised. More recently, unpublished studies have shown flubendazole to be active in vivo against C. neoformans in the mouse model.
Identification of an active class of compound, against a known target, with established in vitro and in vivo activity provides a solid platform for a targeted medicinal chemistry programme. The benzimidazole template has never been optimised for C. neoformans activity or target selectivity before. Flubendazole and albendazole suffer from extensive drug metabolism and have limiting pharmacokinetic (DMPK) properties. As such new analogues design will be guided by DMPK predictive algorithms, whole cell activity, selectivity for C. neoformans beta-tubulin over human beta-tubulin (measured in vitro and modelled) and measured in vitro DMPK. Compounds satisfying set criteria values will move into an in vivo PK/PD mouse models of C. neoformans infection. Compounds active in the mouse model demonstrating suitable PK will form the basis of funding applications for candidate selection enabling studies and beyond.
Planned Impact
Patients (Worldwide, particularly sub-Saharan Africa):
Cryptococcus neoformans is a fungus that is a common cause of lethal meningoencephalitis:
- In sub-Saharan Africa C. neoformans causes more deaths annually than TB.
- C. neoformans is the most common cause of systemic mycosis in patients with AIDS.
- An estimated 1 million cases of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis occur worldwide each year.
First line treatment for C. neoformans is a 2 week course of amphotericin B and 5-flucytosine followed by a long term course of fluconazole. Significant limitations of current agents include:
- Amphotericin B deoxycholate is potent, but associated with anaemia, infusional toxicity and nephrotoxicity. Patients must be closely monitored - not possible in much of sub-Saharan Africa.
- 5- Flucytosine is associated with hepatic and renal toxicity, cannot be used as monotherapy and there are global supply issues.
- Fluconazole is fungistatic and emergence of drug resistance may compromise efficacy.
The development of new orally bioavailable anti-cryptococcal agents with reduced toxicity and improved efficacy is imperative. Development of an agent that results in rapid fungicidal activity in the CNS. Providing a monotherapy that does not require subsequent long term treatment with fluconazole and that can be administered both orally and intravenously (depending on the condition of the patient) would have a huge impact worldwide with the potential to greatly improve the lives of over 1 million patients annually.
Commercial/Private Sector:
A novel therapy for the treatment of C. neoformans is limited in its commercial profitability due to the regions in which the disease is endemic. However, it would provide private sector funding bodies (e.g. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation) with a vested interest in improving the lives of patients with HIV/AIDS with another tool with which to make a substantial difference to patient quality of life and morbidity rates. Private sector donors include foundations (charitable and corporate philanthropic organizations), corporations, faith-based organizations, international NGOs, and individuals. It is estimated that philanthropies provided US$636 million in 2012 to HIV activities internationally (1).
Contribution to the Nation's Health/Wealth:
Although HIV is the largest driver of cryptococcal disease and as such sub-Saharan Africa has been the global region most heavily affected, it is important to acknowledge other factors. Prior to the HIV era in the UK, the incidence of cryptococcosis per 1,000 persons increased from 1.4 in 1963-1968 to 7.4 in 1973-1978. This was predominantly attributable to disease in patients on immunosuppressive medications. Use of potent immunosuppressants (eg, corticosteroids, calcineurin inhibitors, cytotoxic agents, and monoclonal antibodies) for transplant conditioning or treatment of cancer and inflammatory conditions has continued to expand in higher income countries over the last 30 years. As such new therapies against C. neoformans have the potential to treat a small but important minority of cryptococcal illness in settings such as the UK where HIV-related cases are in decline (2).
Staff working on the project:
The skills and contact network of the members of our research group, in particular, the project RAs will be strongly enhanced by close experiment/theory co-working in a cutting-edge translational science area.
(1) https://kaiserfamilyfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2014/07/7347-10-financing-the-response-to-hiv-in-low-and-middle-income-countries.pdf
(2) D. J. Sloan and V. Parris, Clin Epidemiol. 2014; 6: 169-182.
Cryptococcus neoformans is a fungus that is a common cause of lethal meningoencephalitis:
- In sub-Saharan Africa C. neoformans causes more deaths annually than TB.
- C. neoformans is the most common cause of systemic mycosis in patients with AIDS.
- An estimated 1 million cases of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis occur worldwide each year.
First line treatment for C. neoformans is a 2 week course of amphotericin B and 5-flucytosine followed by a long term course of fluconazole. Significant limitations of current agents include:
- Amphotericin B deoxycholate is potent, but associated with anaemia, infusional toxicity and nephrotoxicity. Patients must be closely monitored - not possible in much of sub-Saharan Africa.
- 5- Flucytosine is associated with hepatic and renal toxicity, cannot be used as monotherapy and there are global supply issues.
- Fluconazole is fungistatic and emergence of drug resistance may compromise efficacy.
The development of new orally bioavailable anti-cryptococcal agents with reduced toxicity and improved efficacy is imperative. Development of an agent that results in rapid fungicidal activity in the CNS. Providing a monotherapy that does not require subsequent long term treatment with fluconazole and that can be administered both orally and intravenously (depending on the condition of the patient) would have a huge impact worldwide with the potential to greatly improve the lives of over 1 million patients annually.
Commercial/Private Sector:
A novel therapy for the treatment of C. neoformans is limited in its commercial profitability due to the regions in which the disease is endemic. However, it would provide private sector funding bodies (e.g. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation) with a vested interest in improving the lives of patients with HIV/AIDS with another tool with which to make a substantial difference to patient quality of life and morbidity rates. Private sector donors include foundations (charitable and corporate philanthropic organizations), corporations, faith-based organizations, international NGOs, and individuals. It is estimated that philanthropies provided US$636 million in 2012 to HIV activities internationally (1).
Contribution to the Nation's Health/Wealth:
Although HIV is the largest driver of cryptococcal disease and as such sub-Saharan Africa has been the global region most heavily affected, it is important to acknowledge other factors. Prior to the HIV era in the UK, the incidence of cryptococcosis per 1,000 persons increased from 1.4 in 1963-1968 to 7.4 in 1973-1978. This was predominantly attributable to disease in patients on immunosuppressive medications. Use of potent immunosuppressants (eg, corticosteroids, calcineurin inhibitors, cytotoxic agents, and monoclonal antibodies) for transplant conditioning or treatment of cancer and inflammatory conditions has continued to expand in higher income countries over the last 30 years. As such new therapies against C. neoformans have the potential to treat a small but important minority of cryptococcal illness in settings such as the UK where HIV-related cases are in decline (2).
Staff working on the project:
The skills and contact network of the members of our research group, in particular, the project RAs will be strongly enhanced by close experiment/theory co-working in a cutting-edge translational science area.
(1) https://kaiserfamilyfoundation.files.wordpress.com/2014/07/7347-10-financing-the-response-to-hiv-in-low-and-middle-income-countries.pdf
(2) D. J. Sloan and V. Parris, Clin Epidemiol. 2014; 6: 169-182.
People |
ORCID iD |
Gemma Nixon (Principal Investigator) |
Publications
Du M
(2018)
Proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) compounds to degrade S100A4 and inhibit breast cancer metastasis
in Annals of Oncology
Giamberardino C
(2023)
Pharmacodynamics of ATI-2307 in a rabbit model of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis
in Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
Giamberardino CD
(2022)
Efficacy of APX2039 in a Rabbit Model of Cryptococcal Meningitis.
in mBio
Jarvis JN
(2022)
Single-Dose Liposomal Amphotericin B Treatment for Cryptococcal Meningitis.
in The New England journal of medicine
Jarvis JN
(2019)
Short-course High-dose Liposomal Amphotericin B for Human Immunodeficiency Virus-associated Cryptococcal Meningitis: A Phase 2 Randomized Controlled Trial.
in Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America
Nixon GL
(2018)
Repurposing and Reformulation of the Antiparasitic Agent Flubendazole for Treatment of Cryptococcal Meningoencephalitis, a Neglected Fungal Disease.
in Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy
Stachulski AV
(2021)
Therapeutic Potential of Nitazoxanide: An Appropriate Choice for Repurposing versus SARS-CoV-2?
in ACS infectious diseases
Stott KE
(2022)
Population pharmacokinetics of liposomal amphotericin B in adults with HIV-associated cryptococcal meningoencephalitis.
in The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy
Stott KE
(2023)
Population pharmacokinetics and CSF penetration of flucytosine in adults with HIV-associated cryptococcal meningoencephalitis.
in The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy
Stott KE
(2021)
Cryptococcal meningoencephalitis: time for action.
in The Lancet. Infectious diseases
Description | Initial active drugs have been further optimised and developed. 3 papers are currently being drafted to disseminate the acquired knowledge to the wider academic community. Additional screening has been completed during the award which in combination with the results discovered relating to the initial series of compounds will form the basis of further funding applications. Screening hits have been compiled into a database, triaging complete and work started on one of the key templates emerging in order to gain preliminary data for further applications. |
Exploitation Route | Knowledge disseminated through publications will be used by others. Further funding applications in progress for onward support of the project. |
Sectors | Pharmaceuticals and Medical Biotechnology |
Description | Academy of Medical Sciences COVID-19 preclinical drug development expert group |
Geographic Reach | Multiple continents/international |
Policy Influence Type | Participation in a guidance/advisory committee |
Impact | This online survey and database collates ongoing UK research projects developing potential new therapies for COVID-19. It focuses on preclinical stage therapies and the technologies supporting these therapies. Member of the expert group that designed and facilitated the COVID-19 database. This database aims to enhance the UK's research response to COVID-19 by collating and sharing ongoing preclinical drug discovery and development research. We hope this website will aid the COVID-19 research effort in several ways: Connecting UK scientists with similar or complementary COVID-19 research efforts. Helping researchers identify opportunities to share ideas expertise, methods and materials. Increasing research efficiency by reducing duplication of effort and gaps in research. Enabling policymakers and funding bodies, including the Academy, to make better strategic decisions for COVID-19 drug development research by providing an overview of the existing landscape. |
URL | https://covidpipeline.acmedsci.ac.uk/?utm_source=hootsuite&utm_medium=&utm_term=&utm_content=&utm_ca... |
Description | Amphotericin B Cochleates (Industrial Collaboration) |
Amount | £100,000 (GBP) |
Organisation | Matinas Biosciences |
Sector | Private |
Country | United States |
Start | 03/2017 |
End | 12/2017 |
Description | Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of b-tubulin binding benzimidazole like compounds for the treatment of Cryptococcus neoformans |
Amount | £50,000 (GBP) |
Funding ID | 1626423 |
Organisation | Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) |
Sector | Public |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 07/2015 |
End | 01/2019 |
Description | EnLAmB - Enabling global access to affordable generic liposomal amphotericin B injectable formulations via advanced manufacturing technology |
Amount | £827,496 (GBP) |
Funding ID | MR/X014010/1 |
Organisation | Medical Research Council (MRC) |
Sector | Public |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 05/2023 |
End | 05/2025 |
Description | Funding to obtain preliminary data for a new antifungal compound |
Amount | £25,000 (GBP) |
Organisation | Quadram Institute Bioscience |
Sector | Academic/University |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 03/2016 |
End | 10/2016 |
Description | MRC CiC Hit to lead development of MMV Screening Hits for the treatment of the fungal infection Cryptococcus neoformans |
Amount | £49,781 (GBP) |
Organisation | Medical Research Council (MRC) |
Sector | Public |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 08/2021 |
End | 03/2023 |
Description | MRC New Investigator Award - Rational Design, Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Benzimidazoles; Towards a Novel Therapy Selectively Targeting C. neoformans beta-tubulin |
Amount | £422,000 (GBP) |
Funding ID | MR/N023005/1 |
Organisation | Medical Research Council (MRC) |
Sector | Public |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 06/2016 |
End | 12/2019 |
Description | Synthesis of Click Chemistry Activity Based Protein Profiling (cc-ABPP) probes for validation within Malaria, Tuberculosis and C. neoformans |
Amount | £50,000 (GBP) |
Funding ID | 1776284 |
Organisation | Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) |
Sector | Public |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 06/2016 |
End | 09/2019 |
Description | Collaboration with Jason Oliver, F2G |
Organisation | F2G |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Private |
PI Contribution | Contribution of ideas in respect to the synthesis, isolation and purification of C. neoformans alpha and beta tubulin to produce a functioning polymerisation assay. This assay will allow us to assess the specificity of our compounds for cryptococcus tubulin over bovine tubulin which is used as a human surrogate. |
Collaborator Contribution | Jason Oliver has contributed his molecular biology knowledge and skills in order to produce the required proteins. |
Impact | On completion of the work it is envisaged that a high impact publication will be jointly produced between the two partners. |
Start Year | 2017 |
Description | Collaboration with the Antimicrobial Pharmacodynamics and Therapeutics Group at University if Liverpool, Prof William Hope |
Organisation | University of Liverpool |
Department | Institute of Integrative Biology |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | My team carry out the medicinal chemistry making novel analogues. |
Collaborator Contribution | William's group test the compounds in their existing in vitro and in vivo models. We are working together to develop suitable tubulin assays for the project. |
Impact | 2 papers are currently being written covering one optimised sub-template and the animal work carried on Flubendazole in the C. neoformans model. |
Start Year | 2016 |
Description | MedChemNet Leader |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Professional Practitioners |
Results and Impact | As a MedChemNet Leader I contribute 3 editorials a year and contribute to group discussions. This informs the Medicinal Chemistry of recent advances in my research and that of others working on similar disease/ |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2017,2018 |
URL | https://www.medchemnet.com/ |
Description | Poster Presentation |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
Results and Impact | Presented Poster on Synthesis and Biological evaluation of Benzimidazoles for treatment of Crypto. Presented to around 120 people at the BMCS Postgraduate Symposium December 2017 Received Runner-up Poster Prize |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2017 |
Description | Poster Presentation - Glasgow |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
Results and Impact | Presented Poster on Synthesis and Biological evaluation of Benzimidazoles for treatment of Crypto Presented to around 120 people at |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
Description | School Visit |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | Local |
Primary Audience | Schools |
Results and Impact | I visited Broad Green International College to talk to them about my research and other related subjects they were studying at A-level. This sparked questions and further debate. Next years pupils will visit the University to learn in more detail about what research is carried out. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
Description | Talk |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
Results and Impact | Presented Talk on Synthesis and Biological evaluation of Benzimidazoles for treatment of Crypto. Presented to around 120 people at the BMCS Postgraduate Symposium December 2018 Received Best Oral Presentation Prize |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
Description | Talk - Athens 2019 |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
Results and Impact | Presented Talk for The Synthesis, Computational and Biological Evaluation of benzimidazole against C.neoformans at the EFMC-YMCS conference in Athens in 2019 Attended by around 200 people. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2019 |
Description | University Visit and Lecture (Dundee) |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | National |
Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
Results and Impact | Antifungal research presented across the faculty to spore future collaborations and contacts. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2018 |
Description | Visit to Edinburgh University |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A talk or presentation |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Postgraduate students |
Results and Impact | Visit to Edinburgh, talk given and discussions had with multiple academics re potential collaborations which have subsequently been established. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2019 |