A New Energy Budget for Earth's Core and Implications for the Geomagnetic Field
Lead Research Organisation:
University of Leeds
Department Name: School of Earth and Environment
Abstract
Earth has possessed a magnetic field for at least the last 3.5 billion years, a fact that has profound implications for the evolution of our planet. The geomagnetic field shields the surface environment and the many orbiting satellites from potentially harmful incoming solar radiation; long ago, this shielding effect facilitated the formation of a breathable atmosphere. The field strength is far from constant, varying from place to place and also in time; indeed, the field strength has been decreasing for the last 150 years, leading to a weakening of our protective shield. On a more regional scale, patches of weak field can develop, such as the current low located in the southern Atlantic, which is known to cause anomalies and even failures in satellites that pass through it and has additionally been linked to the global decrease in geomagnetic field strength and local climate variability. Some predictions suggest that this patch of weak field will grow over the next 100 years, which could have significant consequences given society's increasing reliance on satellites and electronic infrastructure. Elucidating the processes that produce global and regional changes in the magnetic field is fundamental for predicting future behaviour.
The source of Earth's magnetic field lies inside the outer core, a region of molten iron some 2800km below Earth's surface. Magnetic field lines, like strands of spaghetti, emanate from the outer core and thread through the whole Earth, passing through the surface and off into the atmosphere. This field is generated by vigorous motion of the molten iron, which twists and stretches the magnetic field lines, a process that requires a significant amount of energy to maintain. The amount of available energy determines the behaviour of the molten iron (just like the behaviour of water in a heated pan depends on the temperature of the stove), which in turn dictates the strength and structure of the magnetic field. In a significant development, my recent work has shown that the energy available to power the molten iron into motion, and hence generate the magnetic field, is presently 2-3 times smaller than previously thought. This result implies that the behaviour of the molten iron in Earth's core may be very different to current predictions (imagine how the water reacts after turning the stove temperature down from boil to simmer), and that current interpretations of the processes causing our magnetic field to vary in space and change in time may be incorrect. At a more fundamental level, we do not currently know how our planet has managed to support a magnetic field for much of its history because the present-day energy reduction causes significant problems for all previous models that explain the existence of the field for the last 3.5 billion years.
The dramatic reduction in energy available to Earth's outer core is prompting one of the biggest changes to our understanding of the geomagnetic field in the last 20 years. To reestablish a basic theory that explains the long-term existence of the magnetic field requires a model that describes how the outer core has evolved over time and therefore arrived its present-day state. I have recently developed a new mathematical model of outer core evolution that alleviates the technical difficulties encountered by previous models. Over the next five years I will use this model to understand how the Earth has supported its magnetic field for the last 3.5 billion years, thereby providing fundamental new sight into the most remote and enigmatic region of our planet. I will use this information to make computer simulations of the Earth's outer core, which will establish the processes responsible for producing the complex magnetic field behaviour we observe and make predictions about future behaviour of the field including the evolution of the global field strength and patches of weak magnetic field.
The source of Earth's magnetic field lies inside the outer core, a region of molten iron some 2800km below Earth's surface. Magnetic field lines, like strands of spaghetti, emanate from the outer core and thread through the whole Earth, passing through the surface and off into the atmosphere. This field is generated by vigorous motion of the molten iron, which twists and stretches the magnetic field lines, a process that requires a significant amount of energy to maintain. The amount of available energy determines the behaviour of the molten iron (just like the behaviour of water in a heated pan depends on the temperature of the stove), which in turn dictates the strength and structure of the magnetic field. In a significant development, my recent work has shown that the energy available to power the molten iron into motion, and hence generate the magnetic field, is presently 2-3 times smaller than previously thought. This result implies that the behaviour of the molten iron in Earth's core may be very different to current predictions (imagine how the water reacts after turning the stove temperature down from boil to simmer), and that current interpretations of the processes causing our magnetic field to vary in space and change in time may be incorrect. At a more fundamental level, we do not currently know how our planet has managed to support a magnetic field for much of its history because the present-day energy reduction causes significant problems for all previous models that explain the existence of the field for the last 3.5 billion years.
The dramatic reduction in energy available to Earth's outer core is prompting one of the biggest changes to our understanding of the geomagnetic field in the last 20 years. To reestablish a basic theory that explains the long-term existence of the magnetic field requires a model that describes how the outer core has evolved over time and therefore arrived its present-day state. I have recently developed a new mathematical model of outer core evolution that alleviates the technical difficulties encountered by previous models. Over the next five years I will use this model to understand how the Earth has supported its magnetic field for the last 3.5 billion years, thereby providing fundamental new sight into the most remote and enigmatic region of our planet. I will use this information to make computer simulations of the Earth's outer core, which will establish the processes responsible for producing the complex magnetic field behaviour we observe and make predictions about future behaviour of the field including the evolution of the global field strength and patches of weak magnetic field.
Planned Impact
The nature of my proposed research means that the greatest impact will be within the Earth Science academic community. My work will tackle fundamental problems with our understanding of the evolution of Earth's deep interior and the dynamical processes generating Earth's magnetic field and I therefore expect the outcomes to have significant impact in the disciplines of core dynamics and geodynamo theory. My new core evolution model will constrain fundamental Earth properties, such as the core-mantle boundary heat-flux, that will be of significant importance to the international community working on mantle dynamics. Additionally, my research will constrain the evolution and properties of the stable layer at the top of Earth's outer core, predictions that can be independently tested using seismological methods. Finally, the new simulations of Earth's core that I will develop engender a two-way link with geomagnetism and paleomagnetism: my simulations will elucidate the processes that give rise to observed spatial and temporal changes in the magnetic field and will also make predictions about past and present behaviour that can be tested with data. I anticipate that establishing close links between observation and theory will provide stimulus to both the future interpretation of paleomagnetic measurements and the direction of theoretical dynamo research.
Results of the proposed research will be presented to both specialists in geodynamo modelling and the broader scientific community through a combination of international conference presentations (as outlined in the accompanying justification of resources--e.g. AGU and SEDI). I expect the findings of this research to have sufficient impact to warrant publication in journals such as Nature and Science as well as more specialised journals such as Earth and Planetary Science Letters, G Cubed, Geophysical Journal International, Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, and the Journal of Fluid Mechanics.
I believe that my proposed research can be of significant interest to the general public. Although fundamental Earth system science does not have the immediate impact of other disciplines such as climate change or sea level rise there has been plenty of recent media attention focused on deep Earth science (specific examples of television programs and popular press articles, including those focusing on my recent work, are given in the accompanying "Pathways to Impact" document), which must reflect public interest and curiosity in the subject. The extent to which the public benefit from my research will be directly related to the size of the audience I can engage and I have outlined several approaches in the accompanying "Pathways to Impact" document that will facilitate accessible communication of my research to the scientifically-curious public. I aim to publish articles on the broader implications of our renewed understanding of Earth's deep interior in the periodicals "New Scientist" and "Physics World", which have a combined circulation of almost 200,000. I will also continue collaboration with the University of Leeds press office and NERC's own scientific writers to maximise the exposure of my work, targeting NERC publications and broadsheet newspapers such as the Times, Observer and Guardian, which each run dedicated science sections and have a combined weekly circulation of almost 1 million. Finally, I will create a website that presents an interactive "Tour of the Deep Earth". The site will allow the user to view components of the deep Earth system at various levels of detail; at each level, information will be provided in the form of text, cartoons, and movies (where appropriate) in a style that is aimed at the non-expert. A discussion forum will allow users to leave comments and suggestions for future improvements. The website will provide a permanent and evolving resource for public engagement that I will popularise through my other outreach activities.
Results of the proposed research will be presented to both specialists in geodynamo modelling and the broader scientific community through a combination of international conference presentations (as outlined in the accompanying justification of resources--e.g. AGU and SEDI). I expect the findings of this research to have sufficient impact to warrant publication in journals such as Nature and Science as well as more specialised journals such as Earth and Planetary Science Letters, G Cubed, Geophysical Journal International, Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, and the Journal of Fluid Mechanics.
I believe that my proposed research can be of significant interest to the general public. Although fundamental Earth system science does not have the immediate impact of other disciplines such as climate change or sea level rise there has been plenty of recent media attention focused on deep Earth science (specific examples of television programs and popular press articles, including those focusing on my recent work, are given in the accompanying "Pathways to Impact" document), which must reflect public interest and curiosity in the subject. The extent to which the public benefit from my research will be directly related to the size of the audience I can engage and I have outlined several approaches in the accompanying "Pathways to Impact" document that will facilitate accessible communication of my research to the scientifically-curious public. I aim to publish articles on the broader implications of our renewed understanding of Earth's deep interior in the periodicals "New Scientist" and "Physics World", which have a combined circulation of almost 200,000. I will also continue collaboration with the University of Leeds press office and NERC's own scientific writers to maximise the exposure of my work, targeting NERC publications and broadsheet newspapers such as the Times, Observer and Guardian, which each run dedicated science sections and have a combined weekly circulation of almost 1 million. Finally, I will create a website that presents an interactive "Tour of the Deep Earth". The site will allow the user to view components of the deep Earth system at various levels of detail; at each level, information will be provided in the form of text, cartoons, and movies (where appropriate) in a style that is aimed at the non-expert. A discussion forum will allow users to leave comments and suggestions for future improvements. The website will provide a permanent and evolving resource for public engagement that I will popularise through my other outreach activities.
Organisations
People |
ORCID iD |
Christopher Davies (Principal Investigator / Fellow) |
Publications
Avery M
(2019)
Spectral methods for analyzing energy balances in geodynamo simulations
in Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors
Bono R
(2020)
Covariant Giant Gaussian Process Models With Improved Reproduction of Palaeosecular Variation
in Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
Clarke A
(2020)
Parallel-in-time integration of kinematic dynamos
in Journal of Computational Physics: X
Clarke A
(2020)
Performance of parallel-in-time integration for Rayleigh Bénard convection
in Computing and Visualization in Science
Cox G
(2019)
Penetration of boundary-driven flows into a rotating spherical thermally stratified fluid
in Journal of Fluid Mechanics
Davies C
(2020)
Rapid geomagnetic changes inferred from Earth observations and numerical simulations
in Nature Communications
Davies C
(2019)
Mantle-induced temperature anomalies do not reach the inner core boundary
in Geophysical Journal International
Davies C
(2019)
Assessing the inner core nucleation paradox with atomic-scale simulations
in Earth and Planetary Science Letters
Davies C
(2018)
Iron snow in the Martian core?
in Earth and Planetary Science Letters
Description | Work prior to this fellowship by myself and colleagues at University College London (UCL) had obtained new estimates for the material properties of Earth's liquid core, the first values to be calculated at the enormous pressures and temperatures of the deep Earth. This work revealed that the thermal conductivity of the core is 2-3 times larger than previous estimates based on extrapolations, which has far-reaching consequences for our understanding of the dynamics and evolution of the core. Specifically, it shows that the power available to generate the geomagnetic field by core fluid motions is much less than previously thought, that the top of the core is probably stratified (rather than in vigorous motion), and that the solid inner core only formed around half a billion years ago. Work in this fellowship has resulted in a new model of core evolution that can calculate the stratiication that arises from thermal and chemical interactions between the core and overlying mantle. Continued collaboration with colleagues at UCL has resulted in a number of papers concerning the transfer of oxygen into the core from the mantle. First we showed that transfer from the solid mantle is negligible and hence this mechanism cannot cause the inferred stratification of the uppermost core. Second, we showed that substantial transfer of oxygen can arise from a liquid mantle, as may have been the case early in Earth's history; however, the chemical reaction further reduces the power available to the magnetic field. We also conducted detailed analysis of the dynamics of rotating convection in spherical shell geometry, the basic configuration of Earth's core. Convection is thought to generate the geomagnetic field; non-magnetic models are useful for understanding the basic physics and can be run on computers at conditions that are closer to those thought to arise in Earth. Our work has provided new insight into the process of heat transfer in rotating convection, defined the different dynamical regimes that arise as the rate of rotation and driving force are varied, and established how fluid flow is altered by the presence of heat flow variations on the system boundaries. This work led to the discovery that stratification in Earth's core may not exist as a distinct layer, as was previously thought, but may be regional, with some parts of the uppermost core being stratified and other still convecting. Finally, in collaboration with Prof. Cathy Constable (Scripps Institution of Oceanography) we have investigated the fastest changes that can be produced by the geomagnetic field. We have placed robust constraints on the surface expression of rapid intensity changes generated in Earth's core, which has helped to reconcile a number of independent paleomagnetic observations of anomalously fast changes around 1000 BCE. We have also combined computer simulations with observational models to show that the fastest changes in intensity and direction of the geomagnetic field are associated with distinct physical processes operating at the top of Earth's core. |
Exploitation Route | We have devised a new method for calculating the partitioning behaviour of major elements at high pressure and temperature. Previous methods were limited to small concentration, but this restriction has now been lifted. Hence the partitioning of major elements can now be calculated across the range of conditions that are relevant for core formation and subsequent evolution of the core-mantle system. This will aid understanding of how the core formed and the processes that set the bulk compositions of the core and mantle. The work on non-magnetic convection paves the way for understanding the processes of magnetic field generation in the different dynamical regimes that have been identified. |
Sectors | Education |
Description | Research carried out during this grant has devised a new model for long-term evolution of Earth's core and coupled this to new dynamical models of recent geomagnetic field behaviour. This work was covered in national and international press, e.g. 1. "Mysterious 'geomagnetic spike' 3000 years ago challenges our understanding of Earth's deep interior", in The Conversation, November 8th, 2017. 2. Earth's magnetic field may change faster than we thought, in The Conversation, July 20,th 2020. 3. Life on Earth: why we may have the Moon's now defunct magnetic field to thank for it, in The Conversation October 15th, 2020. These articles have almost 250,000 hits combined and were covered by UK mainstream press including Sky News and the Daily Mail. During my fellowship I have given a number of outreach talks on my work and the importance of planetary magnetism in general: - Pint of science, Leeds, 2017. - Herman Lecture, the Herman Society of the University of Liverpool, 2019 - Teme Valley Geologica Society, Teme Valley 2019. - Open University Geological Society, Online, 2020 - Malvern U3A, Online 2020. - Hill House School, Doncaster, Online 2020. |
First Year Of Impact | 2017 |
Sector | Education |
Impact Types | Cultural |
Description | NERC Standard Grant |
Amount | £436,183 (GBP) |
Funding ID | NE/P00170X/1 |
Organisation | Natural Environment Research Council |
Sector | Public |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 12/2016 |
End | 08/2020 |
Description | NSFGEO-NERC |
Amount | £259,737 (GBP) |
Funding ID | EAR-1832462 |
Organisation | National Science Foundation (NSF) |
Sector | Public |
Country | United States |
Start | 01/2019 |
End | 12/2021 |
Description | Non-equilibrium thermodynamics in Earth's core -- the agenda for the next decade |
Amount | £79,094 (GBP) |
Funding ID | NE/T004835/1 |
Organisation | Natural Environment Research Council |
Sector | Public |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 12/2019 |
End | 12/2021 |
Description | Resolving the Inner Core Nucleation Paradox |
Amount | £630,307 (GBP) |
Funding ID | NE/T000228/1 |
Organisation | Natural Environment Research Council |
Sector | Public |
Country | United Kingdom |
Start | 04/2020 |
End | 03/2023 |
Description | SIO |
Organisation | University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) |
Department | Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics (IGPP) |
Country | United States |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | Numerical modelling of Earth's magnetic and gravity fields has been ongoing since 2010. Since 2015 I have initiated a new collaboration with Prof. Anne Pommier, an experimental petrologist interested in planetary science. |
Collaborator Contribution | Observational modelling of Earth's magnetic and gravity fields. Petrological determination of the material properties of small terrestrial bodies. |
Impact | DOI: 10.1016/j.epsl.2014.07.042, 10.1002/2014GL059836, 10.1038/ncomms15593, 10.1016/j.epsl.2017.10.026, 10.1016/j.icarus.2018.01.021 doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.10.026 doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2018.01.021. |
Start Year | 2010 |
Description | Simons Rock |
Organisation | Bard College at Simon's Rock |
Country | United States |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | As part of the Global Partnerships Seedcorn Fund grant NE/T004835/1 I will develop a new theoretical model of the non-equilibrium thermodynamics of snow zones that can be applied to planetary cores. The team will also hold a workshop at the University of Leeds that will map out the future strategic direction of this important research area. |
Collaborator Contribution | The theoretical work is complemented by a scoping study that will establish a pathway for using experimental and computational models of non-equilibrium thermodynamic processes at planetary core conditions, utilising the unique experimental facilities of project partner Prof. Mike Bergman. |
Impact | The collaboration only began in January 2020 so there are no outputs as yet. |
Start Year | 2019 |
Description | UCL |
Organisation | University College London |
Department | Department of Security and Crime Science |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | Intellectual input relating to geophysical implications of material properties of iron alloys calculated by Prof. Dario Alfe and Dr. Monica Pozzo at University College London (UCL). |
Collaborator Contribution | Colleagues specialise in calculation of the material properties of iron and iron alloys at the enormous pressures and temperatures of Earth's liquid core. Having swift and direct access to the results of these state-of-the-art calculations is a significant advantage for this fellowship. |
Impact | 10.1016/j.pepi.2015.04.002, 10.1038/ngeo2492 |
Start Year | 2011 |
Description | UCLA |
Organisation | University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) |
Country | United States |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | Numerical datasets for synthesis with experimental datasets produced at UCLA Spinlab. |
Collaborator Contribution | See above. |
Impact | https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-019-0381-z |
Start Year | 2018 |
Description | University of Liverpool |
Organisation | University of Liverpool |
Country | United Kingdom |
Sector | Academic/University |
PI Contribution | I am Co-Investigator on a successful NERC standard grant submitted with Prof. Andy Biggin at Liverpool. I lead research on dynamo modelling. |
Collaborator Contribution | Prof. Biggin leads research on paleomagnetism. |
Impact | The collaboration involves dynamo modelling and paleomagnetism. Work has been presented at national and international conferences, with 1 paper under review and another 2 in preparation. |
Start Year | 2015 |
Description | chinese academy of science |
Organisation | Chinese Academy of Sciences |
Country | China |
Sector | Public |
PI Contribution | I am co-supervising a PhD student who is on a 6 month visit to Leeds from IGGCAS |
Collaborator Contribution | IGGCAS has sent a PhD student to Leeds |
Impact | None yet |
Start Year | 2017 |
Description | Article in The Conversation |
Form Of Engagement Activity | A magazine, newsletter or online publication |
Part Of Official Scheme? | No |
Geographic Reach | International |
Primary Audience | Public/other audiences |
Results and Impact | I wrote an article for the online media outlet The Conversation: http://theconversation.com/mysterious-geomagnetic-spike-3-000-years-ago-challenges-our-understanding-of-the-earths-interior-86638). This article summarised a paper that I published in Nature Communications (https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms15593). The article has received over 50,000 hits from all over the world. |
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity | 2017 |
URL | http://theconversation.com/mysterious-geomagnetic-spike-3-000-years-ago-challenges-our-understanding... |