Gender Stratification in European Welfare States: A comparative study
Lead Research Organisation:
University of Manchester
Department Name: Social Sciences
Abstract
Gender Stratification in European Welfare States: A comparative study of the effects of intergenerational care policy, labour market policy and cultural norms on gender equality outcomes
1. Overview
Analysing the variation in gender equality outcomes between countries, and by class and citizenship within countries, will contribute to our understanding of which policy constellations promote the equal positioning of both sexes across all layers of society.
Research questions:
a) Does applying a theoretically more adequate Gender Equality Index (GEI) change our understanding of gender equality across Europe?
b) How do care policy, labour market policy and cultural norms interact to produce the observed variation in gender equality by country?
c) Within countries, how do the effects of care policy, labour market policy and cultural norms on gender equality vary by class and citizenship?
2. Context
Care and gender equality
In most cases, policy makers have yet to fully recognise unpaid care as labour and increase efforts to lessen this. Recent studies shed light on the significance of eldercare: women provide more support across countries (Schmid et al., 2011), impacting employment patterns and income (Szebehely et al., 2014). None of the available gender equality indices adequately incorporate these aspects.
Variation between countries
There is significant variation between European countries, most likely reflecting differences in the interaction care policy, labour market policy and cultural norms. Care policies can reduce or reinforce the gendered division of care labour. Labour market policy (e.g. working hours, wage bargaining, etc.) also influences the success of policies (Anxo et al., 2007 mentioned in Fagan & Norman, 2013: 215). Finally, country's cultural norms on family roles additionally shape this gendered division (Fagan & Norman, 2013: 201).
Variation within countries
Within countries, policies affect contrastingly situated people differently. The concept of social stratification (Esping-Andersen, 1990) will be expanded on to study policy's redistributive capacities to (re)structure not only class hierarchies, but the gender and citizenship order. Citizenship is relevant in cases where migrant workers or immigrants may have limited or conditional labour market rights and access to care services or financial transfers.
3. Methodology
Ragin's (1987) combined strategy of quantitative cross-national data analysis (variable-oriented) alongside detailed qualitative analysis of individual cases (case-oriented approach).
a) Measuring gender equality outcomes
Using quantitative methods to develop a framework for an improved GEI. Existing data measuring gender equality outcomes will be used to calculate gender gaps. The index will be applied to as many European countries as possible; the aim is to include EU-28, Norway and Switzerland. Variation between countries will be mapped, and the results compared to the EIGE's GEI.
b) Explaining the variation in gender equality between countries
Findings of existing literature will be abstracted into propositions through analytic induction.
Following this, the selected country's care and labour market policies and cultural norms (independent variables) will be mapped using (inter-)national policy documents and micro-data. The propositions will be tested and refined to explain how these variables interact to produce the observed levels of gender equality.
c) Analysing within-country variation in gender equality by class and citizenship
Qualitative analysis of national micro-data and policy documents. The form of provision of services and conditionality of entitlement will be studied. In addition, varying cultural norms on family roles by class and citizenship status will be compared using (inter-)national social survey data to assess how they affect observed variation in gender equality outcomes within a country.
1. Overview
Analysing the variation in gender equality outcomes between countries, and by class and citizenship within countries, will contribute to our understanding of which policy constellations promote the equal positioning of both sexes across all layers of society.
Research questions:
a) Does applying a theoretically more adequate Gender Equality Index (GEI) change our understanding of gender equality across Europe?
b) How do care policy, labour market policy and cultural norms interact to produce the observed variation in gender equality by country?
c) Within countries, how do the effects of care policy, labour market policy and cultural norms on gender equality vary by class and citizenship?
2. Context
Care and gender equality
In most cases, policy makers have yet to fully recognise unpaid care as labour and increase efforts to lessen this. Recent studies shed light on the significance of eldercare: women provide more support across countries (Schmid et al., 2011), impacting employment patterns and income (Szebehely et al., 2014). None of the available gender equality indices adequately incorporate these aspects.
Variation between countries
There is significant variation between European countries, most likely reflecting differences in the interaction care policy, labour market policy and cultural norms. Care policies can reduce or reinforce the gendered division of care labour. Labour market policy (e.g. working hours, wage bargaining, etc.) also influences the success of policies (Anxo et al., 2007 mentioned in Fagan & Norman, 2013: 215). Finally, country's cultural norms on family roles additionally shape this gendered division (Fagan & Norman, 2013: 201).
Variation within countries
Within countries, policies affect contrastingly situated people differently. The concept of social stratification (Esping-Andersen, 1990) will be expanded on to study policy's redistributive capacities to (re)structure not only class hierarchies, but the gender and citizenship order. Citizenship is relevant in cases where migrant workers or immigrants may have limited or conditional labour market rights and access to care services or financial transfers.
3. Methodology
Ragin's (1987) combined strategy of quantitative cross-national data analysis (variable-oriented) alongside detailed qualitative analysis of individual cases (case-oriented approach).
a) Measuring gender equality outcomes
Using quantitative methods to develop a framework for an improved GEI. Existing data measuring gender equality outcomes will be used to calculate gender gaps. The index will be applied to as many European countries as possible; the aim is to include EU-28, Norway and Switzerland. Variation between countries will be mapped, and the results compared to the EIGE's GEI.
b) Explaining the variation in gender equality between countries
Findings of existing literature will be abstracted into propositions through analytic induction.
Following this, the selected country's care and labour market policies and cultural norms (independent variables) will be mapped using (inter-)national policy documents and micro-data. The propositions will be tested and refined to explain how these variables interact to produce the observed levels of gender equality.
c) Analysing within-country variation in gender equality by class and citizenship
Qualitative analysis of national micro-data and policy documents. The form of provision of services and conditionality of entitlement will be studied. In addition, varying cultural norms on family roles by class and citizenship status will be compared using (inter-)national social survey data to assess how they affect observed variation in gender equality outcomes within a country.
