Quantitative analyses of Ediacaran Ecosystems

Lead Research Organisation: University of Cambridge
Department Name: Earth Sciences

Abstract

Organisms have occupied the planet for at least the past 3.5 billion years, but only relatively recently have their fossil remains been large enough to see with the naked eye. The first properly macroscopic fossils turn up around 580 million years ago, in the middle of the Ediacaran Period, less than 50 million years before the appearance of recognizable animals and the conventional fossil record of shells, bones and burrows. The significance of the Ediacaran fossil record is that is provides a direct account of the transition from the exclusively microbial world of the first three billion years, to the conspicuously belated establishment of a recognizably modern biosphere. Unfortunately, the Ediacaran record is also profoundly problematic. Not only do we not know what these earliest large life-forms were related to, it is not even clear what kinds of things they were, or how they made a living. The aim of this research proposed here is to reconstruct the original community ecology of these fossils - how they interacted with one another and with their environment - with an eye to understanding their role in bringing about the modern world.

One of the advantages of studying Ediacaran macrofossils is that none of them moved during life, so their fossilized positions provide an exact account of their original spatial inter-relationships. By analysing these spatial data, it is possible extract a surprising amount of original ecological detail. Like trees in a forest, the distribution of Ediacaran fossils on bedding surfaces reflects the interplay of numerous effects including organism life-history, inter-specific competition and facilitation, and the physical environment. As such, these ecological processes can be reverse engineered using many of the sophisticated statistical and modelling techniques developed by modern forest ecologists. We have already demonstrated the potential of this approach with a recent paper in Nature, and now plan to apply it systematically to the earliest known Ediacaran macrofossils, the "Avalonian assemblage" - known almost exclusively from iconic occurrences in Charnwood Forest, Leicestershire and SE Newfoundland.

The research programme is divided into two main parts. The first is data collection. Here we plan to assemble a comprehensive database of high-resolution, digitized 3D images of all known Avalonian bedding surfaces preserving large populations (> 100 specimens) of macrofossils. Made possible by recent advances in laser-scanning technology, this will yield the precise size, position and orientation of ~20,000 fossils comprising 44 separate bedding-surface communities.

The second, and primary, focus of this project is to analyse these data for their primary ecological content. Using a range of complementary quantitative techniques, we plan to address three main issues in early Ediacaran ecology:

1) How did these organisms interact with their environment, and how much did these environmental interactions matter compared to organism reproduction? This is the subject of a longstanding debate in modern community ecology, and the Ediacaran record offers a unique view of the balance among the first large organisms.

2) What was the distribution of body-sizes in Ediacaran ecosystems and what ecological processes were responsible for their particular size-structure? In modern aquatic systems, body-size is directly related to predation and the feeding relationships of animals, but there is no evidence of predatory animals in any of these early macroscopic communities.

3) Did competition for resources within the overlying water-column dominate interactions between Avalonian organisms? This has often been promoted as a significant factor in Ediacaran ecology, but has never been quantitatively tested. Our analytical approach to this and other questions of Ediacaran ecology promise to shed significant new light on the origin of the modern biosphere.

Planned Impact

There are three non-academic groups that will benefit from our research, and that we will target in our Pathways to Impact plan.

The Interested Public
Understanding the evolution of life on Earth has enormous public interest, and the Ediacaran transition to the modern biosphere is increasingly coming into the public consciousness. Most of the attention has been directed towards younger assemblages in Russia and Australia, but the earlier and arguably more important assemblages are here in the UK and in Newfoundland, Canada. We plan to raise Avalonian Ediacaran awareness in Cambridge through our in-house palaeontological Museum (over 100,000 visitors a year), and by putting the Ediacaran in context of the Cambrian explosion, for which the Cambridge palaeobiology group is world renowned. We are actively engaged with the Charnia Research Group, a group comprising of interested people from Natural England and local museums, local land owners and academics interested in Charnwood and Ediacaran palaeobiology. We will continue to work with this group throughout the project, keeping them updated on our research. In Canada we will work with the Mistaken Point Ecological Reserve visitors centre, to ensure that visitors are aware of our ongoing work and how it illuminates understanding of the fossils beds.

Educators
In Newfoundland we will host a one-day workshop for science teachers liaising with local academics, Mistaken Point Ecological Reserve staff and Parks Canada staff. This workshop will educate teachers and ensure they have the information and resources they need to educate their pupils about their own geological heritage and the global significance of Newfoundland Ediacaran fossils. The Coaker foundation, a local organisation based in Bonavista Peninsula, will help liaise with local educators.

Conservation
Avalonian bedding planes are very susceptible to erosion in Canada and human degradation in the UK. By documenting surfaces using 3D laser scans, they will be preserved in case of further damage. Furthermore, comparisons of the surface scans over longer time periods will enable policy makers, such as Parks Canada and Natural England to have a deeper understanding of the key causes of surface destruction, enabling efficient allocation of resources.
 
Title Figure S4 from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Floating duration (in months) until sinking for small colonies [Göttingen (S1) and Stuttgart 1 (S2) - 40 cm long Diameter 5-6 cm (Community Removed); see Figure 3a] as a function of the dry density (g/cm3) of the material relative to water and its initial moisture content (%). In green wood, diffusion of moisture occurs longitudinally and radially (with a tangential component) for water vapour, liquid water bound to cell walls, and liquid water running free through vessels and tracheids . Initial moisture content reflects the humidity of the surrounding atmosphere (relative humidity) as well as its temperature, and moisture content constrains the diffusion coefficients. In green wood, moisture content can vary between sapwood (>100% where sap flows) and heartwood (~40% closer to the pith) but the model assumes an average moisture content throughout the log. The log will sink as soon as the system {wood log + water} is denser than water. For example (red dotted lines), a log with a dry density of 0.4 g/cm3 and an initial moisture content of 30% (fiber saturation point) would stay afloat for approximately 400 months or 33 years. 
Type Of Art Film/Video/Animation 
Year Produced 2020 
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Figure_S4_from_Reconstructing_the_ecology_of_a_Jurassic_pseudoplank...
 
Title Figure S4 from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Floating duration (in months) until sinking for small colonies [Göttingen (S1) and Stuttgart 1 (S2) - 40 cm long Diameter 5-6 cm (Community Removed); see Figure 3a] as a function of the dry density (g/cm3) of the material relative to water and its initial moisture content (%). In green wood, diffusion of moisture occurs longitudinally and radially (with a tangential component) for water vapour, liquid water bound to cell walls, and liquid water running free through vessels and tracheids . Initial moisture content reflects the humidity of the surrounding atmosphere (relative humidity) as well as its temperature, and moisture content constrains the diffusion coefficients. In green wood, moisture content can vary between sapwood (>100% where sap flows) and heartwood (~40% closer to the pith) but the model assumes an average moisture content throughout the log. The log will sink as soon as the system {wood log + water} is denser than water. For example (red dotted lines), a log with a dry density of 0.4 g/cm3 and an initial moisture content of 30% (fiber saturation point) would stay afloat for approximately 400 months or 33 years. 
Type Of Art Film/Video/Animation 
Year Produced 2020 
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Figure_S4_from_Reconstructing_the_ecology_of_a_Jurassic_pseudoplank...
 
Title Figure S5 from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Floating duration (in months) until critical mass for small colonies [Göttingen (S1) and Stuttgart 1 (S2) - 40 cm long Diameter 5-6 cm (Community Included); see Figure 3b] as a function of the dry density (g/cm3) of the material relative to water and its initial moisture content (%). In addition to the soaking process, we have loaded the log with a community of crinoids with an arbitrary individual growth rate extrapolated from extant species of Neocrinus decorus, Endoxocrinus parae and Cenocrinus asterius within [0.6-17.0 cm/yr] (Messing et al. 2007). Monthly growth rates were converted into mass increments using the specific gravity of calcite at 2.7g/cm3. The log will sink as soon as the system {wood log+water+crinoids} is denser than water. In this case, the log sinks at the end of the first monthly increment of growth. 
Type Of Art Film/Video/Animation 
Year Produced 2020 
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Figure_S5_from_Reconstructing_the_ecology_of_a_Jurassic_pseudoplank...
 
Title Figure S5 from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Floating duration (in months) until critical mass for small colonies [Göttingen (S1) and Stuttgart 1 (S2) - 40 cm long Diameter 5-6 cm (Community Included); see Figure 3b] as a function of the dry density (g/cm3) of the material relative to water and its initial moisture content (%). In addition to the soaking process, we have loaded the log with a community of crinoids with an arbitrary individual growth rate extrapolated from extant species of Neocrinus decorus, Endoxocrinus parae and Cenocrinus asterius within [0.6-17.0 cm/yr] (Messing et al. 2007). Monthly growth rates were converted into mass increments using the specific gravity of calcite at 2.7g/cm3. The log will sink as soon as the system {wood log+water+crinoids} is denser than water. In this case, the log sinks at the end of the first monthly increment of growth. 
Type Of Art Film/Video/Animation 
Year Produced 2020 
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Figure_S5_from_Reconstructing_the_ecology_of_a_Jurassic_pseudoplank...
 
Title Figure S6 from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Floating duration (in months) until critical mass for medium colonies [Frankfurt (M1) and Dotternhausen (M2) - 190 cm long, Diameter 8-12 cm (Community Removed); see Figure 3c] as a function of the dry density (g/cm3) of the material relative to water and its initial moisture content (%). For example, a wood of dry density 0.4 g/cm3 and an initial moisture content of 30% (fiber saturation point) would take approximately 600 months or 50 years (red dotted lines). 
Type Of Art Film/Video/Animation 
Year Produced 2020 
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Figure_S6_from_Reconstructing_the_ecology_of_a_Jurassic_pseudoplank...
 
Title Figure S6 from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Floating duration (in months) until critical mass for medium colonies [Frankfurt (M1) and Dotternhausen (M2) - 190 cm long, Diameter 8-12 cm (Community Removed); see Figure 3c] as a function of the dry density (g/cm3) of the material relative to water and its initial moisture content (%). For example, a wood of dry density 0.4 g/cm3 and an initial moisture content of 30% (fiber saturation point) would take approximately 600 months or 50 years (red dotted lines). 
Type Of Art Film/Video/Animation 
Year Produced 2020 
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Figure_S6_from_Reconstructing_the_ecology_of_a_Jurassic_pseudoplank...
 
Title Figure S7 from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Floating duration (in months) until critical mass for small colonies [Frankfurt (M1) and Dotternhausen (M2) - 190 cm long, Diameter 8-12 cm (Community Included); see Figure 3d] as a function of the dry density (g/cm3) of the material relative to water and its initial moisture content (%). 
Type Of Art Film/Video/Animation 
Year Produced 2020 
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Figure_S7_from_Reconstructing_the_ecology_of_a_Jurassic_pseudoplank...
 
Title Figure S7 from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Floating duration (in months) until critical mass for small colonies [Frankfurt (M1) and Dotternhausen (M2) - 190 cm long, Diameter 8-12 cm (Community Included); see Figure 3d] as a function of the dry density (g/cm3) of the material relative to water and its initial moisture content (%). 
Type Of Art Film/Video/Animation 
Year Produced 2020 
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Figure_S7_from_Reconstructing_the_ecology_of_a_Jurassic_pseudoplank...
 
Title Figure S8 from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Floating duration (in months) until critical mass for medium colonies [Holzmaden (G1) and Stuttgart 2 (G2) - 12 m long Diameter 25-28 cm (Community Removed); see Figure 3e] as a function of the dry density (g/cm3) of the material relative to water and its initial moisture content (%). For example, at fiber saturation (30% moisture content), a material of dry density of 0.4 g/cm3 would take approximately 800 months or 66 years (red dotted lines). 
Type Of Art Film/Video/Animation 
Year Produced 2020 
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Figure_S8_from_Reconstructing_the_ecology_of_a_Jurassic_pseudoplank...
 
Title Figure S8 from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Floating duration (in months) until critical mass for medium colonies [Holzmaden (G1) and Stuttgart 2 (G2) - 12 m long Diameter 25-28 cm (Community Removed); see Figure 3e] as a function of the dry density (g/cm3) of the material relative to water and its initial moisture content (%). For example, at fiber saturation (30% moisture content), a material of dry density of 0.4 g/cm3 would take approximately 800 months or 66 years (red dotted lines). 
Type Of Art Film/Video/Animation 
Year Produced 2020 
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Figure_S8_from_Reconstructing_the_ecology_of_a_Jurassic_pseudoplank...
 
Title Figure S9 from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Pseudoplanktonic crinoid raft colonies are an enigma of the Jurassic. These raft colonies are thought to have developed as floating filter-feeding communities due to an exceptionally rich oceanic niche, high in the water column enabling them to reach large densities on these log rafts. However, this pseudoplanktonic hypothesis has not been quantitatively tested, and there remains some doubt that this mode of life was possible. The ecological structure of the crinoid colony is resolved using spatial point process analyses and the duration estimates of the floating system until sinking using moisture diffusion models. Using spatial analysis, we found that the crinoids would have trailed preferentially positioned at the back of the floating log in the regions of least resistance, consistent with a floating, not benthic ecology. Additionally, we found using a series of moisture diffusion models at different log densities and sizes that ecosystem collapse did not take place solely due to colonies becoming overladen as previously assumed. Our analyses have found that these crinoid colonies studied could have existed for greater than 10 years, even up to 20 years exceeding the life expectancy of modern documented raft systems with possible implications for the role of modern raft communities in the biotic colonization of oceanic islands and intercontinental dispersal of marine and terrestrial species. 
Type Of Art Film/Video/Animation 
Year Produced 2020 
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Figure_S9_from_Reconstructing_the_ecology_of_a_Jurassic_pseudoplank...
 
Title Figure S9 from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Pseudoplanktonic crinoid raft colonies are an enigma of the Jurassic. These raft colonies are thought to have developed as floating filter-feeding communities due to an exceptionally rich oceanic niche, high in the water column enabling them to reach large densities on these log rafts. However, this pseudoplanktonic hypothesis has not been quantitatively tested, and there remains some doubt that this mode of life was possible. The ecological structure of the crinoid colony is resolved using spatial point process analyses and the duration estimates of the floating system until sinking using moisture diffusion models. Using spatial analysis, we found that the crinoids would have trailed preferentially positioned at the back of the floating log in the regions of least resistance, consistent with a floating, not benthic ecology. Additionally, we found using a series of moisture diffusion models at different log densities and sizes that ecosystem collapse did not take place solely due to colonies becoming overladen as previously assumed. Our analyses have found that these crinoid colonies studied could have existed for greater than 10 years, even up to 20 years exceeding the life expectancy of modern documented raft systems with possible implications for the role of modern raft communities in the biotic colonization of oceanic islands and intercontinental dispersal of marine and terrestrial species. 
Type Of Art Film/Video/Animation 
Year Produced 2020 
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Figure_S9_from_Reconstructing_the_ecology_of_a_Jurassic_pseudoplank...
 
Description Our development and application of spatial point process analyses (SPPA) is yielding unprecedented insights into the ecological dynamics of fossil Ediacaran communities - with important implications for understanding the origin of animals and the modern marine biosphere.
Exploitation Route The techniques developed in this study are set to become the 'industry standard' in terms of extracting ecological insight from in situ palaeontological data.
Sectors Education

Environment

Culture

Heritage

Museums and Collections

URL https://sketchfab.com/3d-models/ediacaran-fossils-of-mistaken-point-e-surface-93053f8e8db84982b4c4d92f32225636
 
Description There are four different ways in which this work has had societal impact. First, we worked with the Discovery Aspiring, Newfoundland, Canada to help to support community outreach and their application for UNESCO world heritage status, which they received in 2020. This work involved giving talks at local events and within local schools and providing information and graphics for their application. Second, in the UK, we have spoken to large public science events, including New Scientist Live (2018), a 4-day science festival on Illuminating the start of complex life and New Scientist "Instant Expert" day of the Origins of life: The rise and fall of early life-forms. Thirdly, our work has been covered internationally by news organisations, in over 40 countries across 6 continents including the BBC, The Guardian, The Economist, Discovery News, Washington Post, NBC, Sydney Morning Herald, and El Pais, and within the BBC and PBS documentary Earth: Snowball (2023), where we discussed the work done during this grant work during. Fourthly, in 2019 we developed an exhibition about this work at the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge which ran alongside events in the Cambridge Science Festival. This exhibition won the 2019 Vice-Chancellor's Impact Award for Collaboration. In an academic setting, this grant established a new approach to quantitative palaeoecology, with our approaches used globally (papers published by Australian, Canadian, Chinese, Russian and USA groups). We have been invited and given three workshops on our methods to further extend the usage of our approach. The impact work done during this grant extends outside palaeontologists and evolutionary biologists interested in understanding early animal evolution - 39% of the citations to date of Mitchell et al. 2019 to date focused on a range of different modern systems and on understanding drivers of ecosystem structure.
First Year Of Impact 2018
Sector Education
Impact Types Cultural

Societal

 
Title Data from: Bayesian Network Analysis reveals resilience of Aurelia aurita to Irish Sea zooplankton regime shifts 
Description The data for the contemporary jellyfish-zooplankton network were collected over a 2 week cruise in the Irish Sea on the RV Prince Madog in 2008. Zooplankton were collected using horizontally-towed midwater MIK net and vertically hauled ringnets at 144 different stations (Fig. 3). At each station, physical variables were recorded as follows: location, depth, pressure, flow rate (used to calculate volume filtered), estimated sample depth and water depth using a CTD/sonde system. Stations without depth estimates were excluded from analyses because zooplankton counts could not be standardised. Zooplankton were identified and counts per sample were then standardised using the estimated volume of water sampled. The volume of water sampled was calculated as the mean number of revolutions (NR) per minute of the flow meter, multiplied by the volume of the net. If the mean NR was more than one standard deviation outside the stated flowmeter revolutions per minute, these samples were discarded. For analyses, the zooplankton were grouped by biogeographic group following Beaugrand et al. 2001. 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2021 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/Data_from_Bayesian_Network_Analysis_reveals_resilience_of_Aure...
 
Title Data from: The importance of neutral over niche processes in structuring Ediacaran early animal communities 
Description Spatial positions of fossils on the bedding planes 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2019 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/Data_from_The_importance_of_neutral_over_niche_processes_in_st...
 
Title Data from: The importance of neutral over niche processes in structuring Ediacaran early animal communities 
Description Spatial positions of fossils on the bedding planes. V2 updated with corrected co-ordinates for centre of erosional model. 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2020 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/Data_from_The_importance_of_neutral_over_niche_processes_in_st...
 
Title Data from: The importance of neutral over niche processes in structuring Ediacaran early animal communities 
Description Spatial positions of fossils on the bedding planes. V2 updated with corrected co-ordinates for centre of erosional model. 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2020 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://figshare.com/articles/dataset/Data_from_The_importance_of_neutral_over_niche_processes_in_st...
 
Title Spatial analysis of fossil surfaces 
Description To date we have mapped out 18 fossiliferous surfaces preserving in situ Ediacaran communities - covering a total area of 848m2 and containing over 15,000 fossil specimens. The laser scan data excedes 8 TB; it has been backed up at the BGS. 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2017 
Provided To Others? No  
Impact no published results to date 
 
Title Supplementary materials - Sinking time in years.xlsx from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Pseudoplanktonic crinoid raft colonies are an enigma of the Jurassic. These raft colonies are thought to have developed as floating filter-feeding communities due to an exceptionally rich oceanic niche, high in the water column enabling them to reach large densities on these log rafts. However, this pseudoplanktonic hypothesis has not been quantitatively tested, and there remains some doubt that this mode of life was possible. The ecological structure of the crinoid colony is resolved using spatial point process analyses and the duration estimates of the floating system until sinking using moisture diffusion models. Using spatial analysis, we found that the crinoids would have trailed preferentially positioned at the back of the floating log in the regions of least resistance, consistent with a floating, not benthic ecology. Additionally, we found using a series of moisture diffusion models at different log densities and sizes that ecosystem collapse did not take place solely due to colonies becoming overladen as previously assumed. Our analyses have found that these crinoid colonies studied could have existed for greater than 10 years, even up to 20 years exceeding the life expectancy of modern documented raft systems with possible implications for the role of modern raft communities in the biotic colonization of oceanic islands and intercontinental dispersal of marine and terrestrial species. 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2020 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Supplementary_materials_-_Sinking_time_in_years_xlsx_from_Reconstru...
 
Title Supplementary materials - Sinking time in years.xlsx from Reconstructing the ecology of a Jurassic pseudoplanktonic raft colony 
Description Pseudoplanktonic crinoid raft colonies are an enigma of the Jurassic. These raft colonies are thought to have developed as floating filter-feeding communities due to an exceptionally rich oceanic niche, high in the water column enabling them to reach large densities on these log rafts. However, this pseudoplanktonic hypothesis has not been quantitatively tested, and there remains some doubt that this mode of life was possible. The ecological structure of the crinoid colony is resolved using spatial point process analyses and the duration estimates of the floating system until sinking using moisture diffusion models. Using spatial analysis, we found that the crinoids would have trailed preferentially positioned at the back of the floating log in the regions of least resistance, consistent with a floating, not benthic ecology. Additionally, we found using a series of moisture diffusion models at different log densities and sizes that ecosystem collapse did not take place solely due to colonies becoming overladen as previously assumed. Our analyses have found that these crinoid colonies studied could have existed for greater than 10 years, even up to 20 years exceeding the life expectancy of modern documented raft systems with possible implications for the role of modern raft communities in the biotic colonization of oceanic islands and intercontinental dispersal of marine and terrestrial species. 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2020 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://rs.figshare.com/articles/Supplementary_materials_-_Sinking_time_in_years_xlsx_from_Reconstru...
 
Description Acquisition, processing and interpretation of fossil data 
Organisation British Geological Survey
Country United Kingdom 
Sector Academic/University 
PI Contribution We are collaborating with Project Partner Dr Philip Wilby at the British Geological Survey on aspects of Ediacaran palaeobiology, including spatial analysis of important fossil localities at Charnwood Forest, Leicestershire. Simon Harris, also at the BGS, is a leading expert in the acquistion and processing of large spatial datasets.
Collaborator Contribution BGS personnel have contributed key fossil material to this project, as well as valuable expertise in data acquisition and processing
Impact This work is still in progress
Start Year 2016
 
Description Invited outreach talk (PDRA Emily Mitchell), Coaker Foundation, Port Union, Newfoundland 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact A general talk to explain the nature of our research to local residents. The presentation was well received, and contributed to local efforts to establish a UNESCO Geopark in the area.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016
 
Description Invited seminar speaker (PDRA Emily Mitchell), Durham University 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Professional Practitioners
Results and Impact Invited research seminar
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2017
 
Description Invited seminar speaker (PDRA Emily Mitchell), Harvard University 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Local
Primary Audience Professional Practitioners
Results and Impact Inter-departmental research seminar, Harvard University
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2017
 
Description Invited seminar speaker (PDRA Emily Mitchell), University of Edinburgh 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Professional Practitioners
Results and Impact Invited research seminar
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016
 
Description Invited seminar speaker (PDRA Emily Mitchell), University of Oxford 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Local
Primary Audience Professional Practitioners
Results and Impact invited departmental seminar
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2018