INTRIGUED: INvestigating The Role of the North Pacific In Glacial and Deglacial CO2 and Climate

Lead Research Organisation: University of St Andrews
Department Name: Earth and Environmental Sciences

Abstract

The geological record offers an invaluable window into the different ways earth's climate can operate. The most recent large-scale changes in earth's climate, prior to modern climate change, were the Pleistocene glacial cycles, which feature growth and disintegration of large ice sheets, rapid shifts in major rain belts, and abrupt changes in ocean circulation. Changes in atmospheric CO2 concentrations, reconstructed from air bubbles in ice cores, are intimately linked with these ice age climate events. Indeed the close coupling of CO2 and temperature over glacial-interglacial cycles has become an iconic image in climate science, a poster child for the importance of CO2 in climate, and the natural template against which to compare current man-made CO2 rise.
However despite the high profile of glacial-interglacial CO2 change, we still don't fully understand its cause. The leading hypotheses for glacial CO2 change involve increased CO2 uptake by the ocean during ice ages, which is vented to the atmosphere during deglaciation. However despite decades of work these hypotheses have had few direct tests, due to a lack of data on CO2 storage in the glacial ocean. One of the most glaring holes in our understanding of ice age CO2 and climate change is the behaviour of the Pacific. This basin contains half of global ocean volume, and ~30 times more CO2 than the atmosphere, and so its behaviour will have global impact. It has also recently been suggested that the North Pacific may play an active role in deglacial CO2 rise, with local deep water formation helping to release CO2 from the deep ocean to the atmosphere. If correct, this hypothesis provides a new view of Earth's climate system, with deep water able to form in each high latitude basin in the recent past, and the North Pacific potentially playing a pivotal role in deglaciation. However few data exist to test either the long-standing ideas on the Pacific's role in glacial CO2 storage, nor the more recent hypothesis that North Pacific deep water contributed to rapid deglacial CO2 rise. Given the size of the Pacific CO2 reservoir, our lack of knowledge on its behaviour is a major barrier to a full understanding of glacial-interglacial CO2 change and the climate of the ice ages.
This proposal aims to transform our understanding of ice age CO2 and climate change, by investigating how the deep North Pacific stored CO2 during ice ages, and released it back to the atmosphere during deglaciations. We will use cutting-edge geochemical measurements of boron isotopes in microfossil shells (which record the behaviour of CO2 in seawater) and radiocarbon (which records how recently deep waters left the surface ocean), on recently collected samples from deep ocean sediment cores. By comparing these new records to other published data, we will be able to distinguish between different mechanisms of CO2 storage in the deep Pacific, and to test the extent of North Pacific deep water formation and CO2 release during the last deglaciation. We will also improve the techniques used to make boron isotope measurements, and add new constraints on the relationship between boron isotopes and seawater CO2 chemistry, which will help other groups using this technique to study CO2 change. To help us understand more about the mechanisms of changes in CO2 and ocean circulation, and provide synergy with scientists in other related disciplines, we will compare our data to results from earth system models, and collaborate with experts on nutrient cycling and climate dynamics. Our project will ultimately improve understanding of CO2 exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere, which is an important factor for predicting the path of future climate change.

Planned Impact

1. Workshop on ice age climate change delivered to schools through Geobus (Secondary school students and teachers):

Secondary school students, teachers, and their families will benefit from educational outreach that we will undertake as part of the University of St Andrews' Geobus initiative. Geobus provides teaching and resources in the earth and environmental sciences to secondary schools across Scotland and the North of England. We will develop a Geobus workshop on ice age oceans and climate change, showing how high-school level physics and chemistry may be applied to understand ocean-atmosphere CO2 exchange, global albedo, and deep ocean circulation. The topical nature of climate change makes it an excellent topic with which to engage students in STEM subjects, a key goal for UK education and economic development.

2. Edinburgh Science Festival (General public-children and families; adults):


Building on the workshop developed with the expertise of the Geobus team, we will apply to bring a workshop on ice age climate change to the Edinburgh Science Festival. This will feature hands-on experiments that teach the fundamental science underpinning climate change past and present. We will pitch a project that uses CO2 and pH loggers, water tanks, and floating candles to measure the effect of burning fossil fuels on CO2 in the atmosphere and the ocean. PI Rae will also give an evening lecture to adults on the science of deglaciation, featuring drink mixing of different colours and densities to simulate ocean circulation, and ice input to simulate different sea level rise scenarios.

3. Improved scientific understanding of the climate system (Climate scientists, policy makers, and their constituents):

This project will provide new insights into ocean-atmosphere CO2 exchange, links between changes in rainfall and abrupt changes in ocean circulation and climate, and deglaciation of major ice sheets. These components of the climate system have the potential to change rapidly in the next few hundred years, so improved knowledge of how they can operate, and of any potential 'tipping points' in the climate system, is required by policy makers for the benefit of the general public. To ensure effective dissemination of our research results throughout the climate science field, PI Rae will organise a session at the AGU fall meeting in year two of this project, in collaboration with our project partners. To establish a direct link with policy makers, PI Rae will meet with the Member of Parliament for NE Fife, to discuss the science underlying anthropogenic climate change.

4. Climate change teaching moments (General Public and Policy Makers):

The proposed research covers a broad range of topical climate topics, providing excellent teaching moments to engage with the general public. We will use the St Andrews press office to help disseminate our key findings, and their relationship to modern climate change, to the media. PI Rae's recent paper on this topic was effectively publicised in this way, making the front page of the Herald, and garnering coverage in the Times of India, the Daily Mirror, and Daily Mail. PI Rae will also maintain an active blog on this research on his group website, and promote the project's progression on Facebook and Twitter. PI Rae is an active tweeter and will continue to use this platform as a means to reach a broad audience.

5. Training of young researchers (Young researchers and UK STEM community):

The project will train two undergraduate students in laboratory techniques, research methods, and scientific writing, with impact assessed through a project report, and inclusion on manuscripts. The project will also train a PDRA in radiocarbon and boron isotope analyses. The multi-disciplinary nature of this project, with involvement of a strong and diverse network of project partners, will further enhance the PDRA's training and career deve

Publications

10 25 50
 
Description We have found pulses of CO2-rich waters reaching the surface ocean in the North Pacific during specific intervals of rapid climate change during the last deglaciation. We have used new model data comparisons to work out the mechanism for changes in CO2 release and pulses of biological productivity and hypoxia. We have also found that similar pulses of productivity occur during each of the rapid climate change events of the last 100 kyr. Finally we have shown that during the last glacial maximum there was an enhanced Pacific Meridional Overturning Circulation (PMOC), which contributed to changes in productivity and temperature in this region - and may even have aided early human migration to North America.

We have found a Southward expansion of the North Pacific gyre boundary at the last glacial maximum, caused by a combination of ice sheets and low CO2.

We have identified signals of propagating North Pacific deep water during the last deglaciation in the W Equatorial Pacific.

We have placed our results within a global context of CO2 outgassing.

We have improved calibration of geochemical proxies for CO2 and climate.

We have recently developed an expanded picture of the radiocarbon distribution of the North Pacific.

We have expanded our findings to encompass high resolution records of the last glacial cycle
Exploitation Route We are following this initial result up with increased data resolution. In future these data will be a valuable modelling target and may notably improve understanding of rapid CO2 change. The discovery of enhanced glacial PMOC has already been taken on as a target for state of the art climate models. The discovery of enhanced glacial PMOC is also of intense interest to the archeological community, for its impact on the habitability of Beringia, prior to the first peopling of North America.
Sectors Education

Energy

Environment

Culture

Heritage

Museums and Collections

URL https://www.jameswbrae.com/research/north-pacific
 
Description They have contributed to outreach activities carried out through Geobus, including a variety of educational resources and CPD workshops for teachers. This in turn has spurred a huge range of other engagement activities (40+), as listed against this award. These have drawn on reconstructions of past climate change funded through this project to inspire and inform the public. Examples include a TEDx talk, a virtual lecture advertised to all St Andrews alumni, service on the board of the Royal Meteorological Society's Education and Outreach committee, press releases widely picked up by the media, contributions to science festivals and events ahead of COP26, and coaching of young activists running climate hustings with candidates for the Scottish Parliament.
First Year Of Impact 2016
Sector Education,Environment,Government, Democracy and Justice,Culture, Heritage, Museums and Collections
Impact Types Cultural

Societal

Policy & public services

 
Title Calcifying phytoplankton standing stocks in the North Pacific from the R/V Kilo Moana cruise KM1712 
Description This dataset compiles the CaCO3 standing stocks of living coccolithophores (mg/m³), of detached coccoliths (mg/m³) and the integrated CaCO3 standing stocks of coccolithophores (mg/m²). The samples were collected in the North Pacific between Hawaii and the Gulf of Alaska during the R/V Kilo Moana cruise KM1712 in August 2017, with rosette Niskin bottles equiped with CTD (Sea-Bird SBE 9) at different depths throughout the photic zone including the deep chlorophyll maximum. To estimate the CaCO3 contribution by coccolithophore assemblages in each sample, we carried out the transformation of coccospheres in number of coccoliths, following the estimates by Yang and Wei (2003), and then we adopted the coccolith mass estimates by Young and Ziveri (2000). The coccolith mass of Noëlaerhabdaceae also took into account the estimates by Beuvier et al. (2019) considering different mass for E. huxleyi calcification degree. 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2022 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.948506
 
Title Calcifying zooplankton standing stocks and in the North Pacific from the R/V Kilo Moana cruise KM1712 
Description This dataset compiles the standing stocks (ind/m³), the integrated standing stocks (ind/m²) and the integrated CaCO3 standing stocks (mg/m²) for three groups of zooplanktonic calcifying organisms: pteropods, heteropods and foraminifers. The organisms were collected by oblique towing (Ø 0.5 m, 90 µm mesh size, SeaGear mechanical flowmeter) in the North Pacific between Hawaii and the Gulf of Alaska during the R/V Kilo Moana cruise KM1712 in August 2017. The sampling strategy was designed to capture an integrated sample of all foraminifers, pteropods and heteropods from juveniles to adults living throughout the upper water column. Pteropods and heteropods were quantified and shell diameter measured using a Leica Z16 AP0 binocular light microscope at 20-100x. Pteropods and heteropods were identified and grouped respectively in three (Cavoliniidae, Cymbuliidae, Limacinidae) and two (Atlantidae, Carinidae) families. All Foraminifera were wet picked from the sample splits, divided into groups greater and less than 125 µm, counted, and weighed with a high precision microbalance. 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2022 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.948504
 
Title Compilation of deglacial planktic d18O data from the North Pacific 
Description  
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2020 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.912229
 
Title Data for: Equilibria, kinetics, and boron isotope partitioning in the aqueous boric acid - hydrofluoric acid system 
Description Calculated gas phase beta-factors and alphas at 25 deg C. 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2020 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/9s4z6znwj9/1
 
Title Data for: Equilibria, kinetics, and boron isotope partitioning in the aqueous boric acid - hydrofluoric acid system 
Description Calculated gas phase beta-factors and alphas at 25 deg C. 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2020 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/9s4z6znwj9
 
Title Deglacial planktic foraminiferal boron isotope and Mg/Ca data from sediment core MD01-2416 in the western North Pacific Ocean 
Description Data from Gray Rae et al. (2018) 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2018 
Provided To Others? Yes  
Impact Use by various other researchers in scientific publications 
URL https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.887381
 
Title Delgacial boron isotope data 
Description Global compilation of deglacial d11B data associated with Shao et al. 2019 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2019 
Provided To Others? Yes  
Impact Use by other researchers 
URL https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.901237
 
Title Distribution and ecology data of planktic Foraminifera in the North Pacific 
Description Foram data associated with Taylor Rae et al. (2018) 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2018 
Provided To Others? Yes  
Impact Use by other researchers 
URL https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.890231
 
Title Integrated annual calcium carbonate production of planktic calcifiers in the North Pacific from the R/V Kilo Moana cruise KM1712 
Description This dataset compiles the estimates of annual CaCO3 production, including the upper and lower limits of the estimates, for the 4 planktic calcifying groups considered in the study, the pteropods (mg/m²/yr), the heteropods (mg/m²/yr), the foraminifers (mg/m²/yr) and the coccolithophores (mg/m²/yr). The estimates derived from the living standing stocks of these 4 groups of organisms collected in the North Pacific between Hawaii and the Gulf of Alaska during the R/V Kilo Moana cruise KM1712 in August 2017. R code was used to calculate the integrated annual CaCO3 production for the different organisms, including the upper and lower limits (Gray, 2022). 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2022 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.948507
 
Title Marine microfossil compilation up to 2021 
Description This dataset includes a global compilation of new and published 14C measurements of benthic foraminifera and deep-sea corals (from 0-to 49872 years BP). We synthesized this new dataset into basin-average 14C ventilation age values over the 25,000 years, along density surfaces associated with the upper and lower cells of global ocean overturning circulation (27.5 and 28 kg m^-3, respectively). The published datasets are from all ocean basins, even those not utilized in our synthesis. We also provide the basin-average estimates for the Atlantic, Southern, and Pacific Oceans as produced by the Rafter et al. 2022 study. 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2022 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.946522
 
Title North Pacific planktic d18O data 
Description Compilation of planktic foram d18O data, constraining gyre boundary position, associated with Gray et al. 2020 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2020 
Provided To Others? Yes  
Impact Use by other researchers in publications 
URL https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.912229
 
Title Radiocarbon and U-series age data of deep-sea corals 
Description There are 3 dataset in this contribution. Table S1 contains radiocarbon data of the Galápagos deep-sea coral together with data from the low latitude Atlantic intermediate waters. Table S2 contains U-Th age data of the deep-sea corals from the low latitude Atlantic. Table S3 contains the test of the coral radiocarbon age reproducibility between AMS in UCI and Bristol 
Type Of Material Database/Collection of data 
Year Produced 2020 
Provided To Others? Yes  
URL https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/vxrmfch8h9/1
 
Description CDISK4 Research Cruise 
Organisation California Institute of Technology
Department Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences
Country United States 
Sector Academic/University 
PI Contribution Our group provided expertise in foraminiferal ecology, geochemistry, and proxy calibration. This was crucial for the overall project goal of determining the carbonate budget and carbon cycling of the North Pacific.
Collaborator Contribution The Caltech and USC groups secured NSF funding for the CDISK4 cruise and invited us to participate. They also made crucial carbonate chemistry and hydrographic measurements that allow us to improve proxy calibration in this region, a key component of this project. We have also gained new insights into the carbon cycle of this region in the modern, which will inform our paleo reconstructions.
Impact Recent presentations at AGU Ocean Sciences 2018. A feature length film on the expedition is also in production.
Start Year 2017
 
Description CDISK4 Research Cruise 
Organisation University of Southern California
Department College of Letters, Arts and Sciences
Country United States 
Sector Academic/University 
PI Contribution Our group provided expertise in foraminiferal ecology, geochemistry, and proxy calibration. This was crucial for the overall project goal of determining the carbonate budget and carbon cycling of the North Pacific.
Collaborator Contribution The Caltech and USC groups secured NSF funding for the CDISK4 cruise and invited us to participate. They also made crucial carbonate chemistry and hydrographic measurements that allow us to improve proxy calibration in this region, a key component of this project. We have also gained new insights into the carbon cycle of this region in the modern, which will inform our paleo reconstructions.
Impact Recent presentations at AGU Ocean Sciences 2018. A feature length film on the expedition is also in production.
Start Year 2017
 
Description North Pacific climate dynamics 
Organisation ETH Zurich
Country Switzerland 
Sector Academic/University 
PI Contribution Contribution of data and expertise on the past behaviour of the North Pacific ocean
Collaborator Contribution Model output and expertise on climate dynamics
Impact 2 draft manuscripts
Start Year 2013
 
Description Southern Ocean dynamics 
Organisation University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA)
Department UCLA Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences
Country United States 
Sector Academic/University 
PI Contribution We have contributed new data and ideas based on our paleoceanographic reconstructions that have motivated a new set of modelling approaches, forming the basis of a new PhD studentship project at St Andrews in Collaboration with our colleagues in the School of Mathematics.
Collaborator Contribution Our partners have contributed significant expertise in mathematical modelling and instigated a joint PhD studentship, which they have day to day responsibility for.
Impact Not yet - it has just commenced.
Start Year 2017
 
Description Southern Ocean dynamics 
Organisation University of St Andrews
Department School of Mathematics and Statistics
Country United Kingdom 
Sector Academic/University 
PI Contribution We have contributed new data and ideas based on our paleoceanographic reconstructions that have motivated a new set of modelling approaches, forming the basis of a new PhD studentship project at St Andrews in Collaboration with our colleagues in the School of Mathematics.
Collaborator Contribution Our partners have contributed significant expertise in mathematical modelling and instigated a joint PhD studentship, which they have day to day responsibility for.
Impact Not yet - it has just commenced.
Start Year 2017
 
Title Global reorganization of deep-sea circulation and carbon storage after the last ice age 
Description This uses the dataset stored at PANGAEA: https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.946522 Abstract from the paper: Using new and published marine fossil radiocarbon (14C/C) measurements-a tracer uniquely sensitive to circulation and air-sea gas exchange-we establish several benchmarks for Atlantic, Southern, and Pacific deep-sea circulation and ventilation since the last ice age. We find the most 14C-depleted water in glacial Pacific bottom depths, rather than the mid-depths as they are today, which is best explained by a slowdown in glacial deep-sea overturning in addition to a "flipped" glacial Pacific overturning configuration. These observations cannot be produced by changes in air-sea gas exchange alone, and they underscore the major role for changes in the overturning circulation for glacial deep-sea carbon storage in the vast Pacific abyss, and the concomitant drawdown of atmospheric CO2. 
Type Of Technology Software 
Year Produced 2022 
Open Source License? Yes  
URL https://zenodo.org/record/7112182
 
Title willyrgray/cdisk4_caco3_production: cdisk4_caco3_production_v1 
Description ziveri et al, nat. comms. 
Type Of Technology Software 
Year Produced 2022 
URL https://zenodo.org/record/7458132
 
Description Arranged public lecture on climate and energy by Prof Wally Broecker 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact Prof Wally Broecker visited St Andrews following interest in NERC-funded research work, and I arranged a public lecture, that was widely attended by the local community
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2017
 
Description Association for Science Education (ASE) conference, climate workshop 
Form Of Engagement Activity Participation in an activity, workshop or similar
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Professional Practitioners
Results and Impact Workshop on climate change teaching resources, developed with Geobus as part of NERC funded research, and delivered to Science teachers as part of CPD event.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2019
URL https://www.ase.org.uk
 
Description Atom Science Festival on climate solutions, keynote speaker 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact The Atom science festival brought together schools in Oxfordshire to discuss climate solutions, with a range of events. I was scheduled for a keynote talk and to be part of a panel discussion with local politicians, business, and charities leaders. This took place instead in a virtual form, and I provided an interview and Q&A session.
The invitation for this came as part of my role on the Royal Meteorological Society and following my TedX talk.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
 
Description CPD event for Scottish Geography Teachers 
Form Of Engagement Activity Participation in an activity, workshop or similar
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact At the Scottish Association of Geography Teachers annual conference we ran two 50 minute sessions with 15 teachers in each session. Each workshop was made up of a series of kitchen cupboard still experiments to help explain climate. Teachers will provided with the power point, worksheets and experiment instructions to be able to disseminate information to their classes.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016
 
Description Café Scientifique Perth, climate change talk 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact Public lecture to regional community science group on climate change. Sold out event with extensive Q&A afterwards and two follow up talks delivered on the back of this (Perth U3A and Highland Trust AGM)
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2019
 
Description Climate Change resources provided for Music Planet concert 
Form Of Engagement Activity Participation in an activity, workshop or similar
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact Concert linking music and climate change - I provided advice on content of images and information on climate science
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2017
URL https://synergy.st-andrews.ac.uk/musicplanet/
 
Description Climate science talk, Big Bounce Science Festival, Institute of Physics 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact An Institute of Physics science festival, centred on Glasgow ahead of COP26. I delivered a talk and discussion with comedian host, and ran Q&A events with schools prior to the event.
The invitation to speak at this event followed from previous events given virtually built on materials developed during my NERC grant.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
URL https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d3znOsNf39o
 
Description Climate talk at Highgate School 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact Talk on climate change at school in London
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2017
 
Description Community Group talk, Pittenweem 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact Talk on climate science to community interest group in Pittenweem. Sell out event with lively Q&A. Requests for follow on talks to local business groups (given following year)
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2019
 
Description Critical Conversations panel discussion on oceans and climate 
Form Of Engagement Activity A formal working group, expert panel or dialogue
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Local
Primary Audience Undergraduate students
Results and Impact panel discussion for University Museum on climate and oceans, ahead of "Dive In" exhibit, and featuring material from Challenger. Examples given from research on past changes in the ocean.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2021
URL https://events.st-andrews.ac.uk/events/critical-conversations-climate-change/
 
Description Delivery of climate workshop to secondary school pupils 
Form Of Engagement Activity Participation in an activity, workshop or similar
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact In 2016 GeoBus delivered a series of workshops to National 5 and Higher level students looking at the causes and impacts of climate change from July to December we worked with 486 students. The pupils feedback on the workshop, this feedback has been used to improve the workshop that is being delivered in 2017. So fair 105 pupils have taken part in the workshop and a further 300 are booked to participate between now and the end of May.

The workshops have been designed to provide practical activities linking to climate science, to allow students to speak to experts and to insure that they are making decisions based on up-to-date facts.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016,2017
URL https://geobus.st-andrews.ac.uk/whatweoffer/workshops/
 
Description Development of online resources promoting good practice when teaching climate science. These resources are linked to the 
Form Of Engagement Activity Participation in an activity, workshop or similar
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact The online resources are being developed by the GeoBus team over an 18 month period July 2016 -December 2017. These resources include a series of lesson plans under 4 titles:
* It's happening: Evidence of Climate Change
* It's Us: Causes of Climate Change
* It's Serious: Impact of Climate Change
* It's Solvable:Solutions to Climate Change

These resources can be downloaded and taught by teachers all over the world but are specifically linked to the Scottish and English curriculum, from March 2017 we will be able to track the downloads of resource. The assumption is that it will be educators who download the resources and will disseminate the lessons to there classes. the average class size is 20 pupils for science class and 30 for a social science class. The resources have sparked interest from teachers and international educators (AGU) who have asked for similar resources to be produced in the future.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016,2017
URL https://geobus.st-andrews.ac.uk/resources/carbon-capture-storage/
 
Description Dundee Science Festival, talk and teaching activities and materials 
Form Of Engagement Activity Participation in an activity, workshop or similar
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact As part of Dundee Science Centre's annual science festival I delivered a talk on climate science, drawing on examples from my research, and provided educational resources, developed with Geobus as part of my NERC grants
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
URL https://www.dundeesciencefestival.org/climate-change
 
Description EOS article on North Pacific circulation paper 
Form Of Engagement Activity Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Professional Practitioners
Results and Impact Article in EOS, the Science News magazine of the AGU, on Rae et al. (2020) Science Advances article, a key output from NERC grant Intrigued.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2021
URL https://eos.org/articles/overturning-in-the-pacific-may-have-enabled-a-standstill-in-beringia
 
Description Earth Day 2020 schools workshops on climate change 
Form Of Engagement Activity Participation in an activity, workshop or similar
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact Workshops on climate change in local schools, using materials developed with Geobus as part of NERC grant. These were given by a team of 5, reaching several hundred students over the course of the day.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
 
Description Green Week talk 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Local
Primary Audience Undergraduate students
Results and Impact Interactive talk on climate change for students as part of University Green Week
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2017
 
Description Highland Perthshire Communities Land Trust AGM keynote guest speaker 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Third sector organisations
Results and Impact Talk on climate science and solutions to community land ownership group. Discussion of land carbon sinks and use for renewable energy - impacting decision making by this group on the use of their land.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
 
Description Panelist coach, The Future Speaks, climate hustings for MSP candidates 
Form Of Engagement Activity Participation in an activity, workshop or similar
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact Teach the Future is an organisation campaigning for improved climate education in schools. Ahead of the 2020 Scottish Parliament Elections they organised a series of climate hustings, The Future Speaks, with young people grilling candidates for MSP in 8 different Scottish regions on climate and sustainability
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2021
URL https://www.teachthefuture.uk/blog/the-future-speaks
 
Description Press release on Gray, Rae et al. (2018) on Pacific deglaciation 
Form Of Engagement Activity A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Media (as a channel to the public)
Results and Impact Press release on Gray, Rae, et al. (2018), Nature Geoscience, on North Pacific productivity, circulation, and CO2, widely picked up by print and online media. This was a direct outcome of NERC grant INTRIGUED.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2018
URL https://news.st-andrews.ac.uk/archive/a-switch-in-ocean-circulation-that-helped-end-the-ice-age/
 
Description Press release on North Pacific circulation paper 
Form Of Engagement Activity A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Media (as a channel to the public)
Results and Impact Press release on Rae et al. (2020) Science Advances paper on LGM North Pacific. Widely picked up by different media outlets. This was a direct outcome from NERC grant Intrigued. It also led to follow up interviews and a dedicated article in EOS, AGU's science news magazine.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
URL https://news.st-andrews.ac.uk/archive/warm-oceans-helped-first-human-migration-from-asia-to-north-am...
 
Description Press release on North Pacific deep water following Rae et al. (2014) 
Form Of Engagement Activity A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Media (as a channel to the public)
Results and Impact Press release on North Pacific deep water paper widely picked up by the media. This work was partially funded by my NERC PhD and a small grant (TRAGIC), and was followed up with a NERC standard grant (INTRIGUED) in 2015
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2014
URL https://news.st-andrews.ac.uk/archive/the-last-ice-age/
 
Description Press release on glacial circulation and CO2 papers 
Form Of Engagement Activity A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Media (as a channel to the public)
Results and Impact Press release on Li et al. (2020) Science Advances and Chen et al. (2020) Nature Geosciences papers on glacial circulation and CO2 reconstructed using deep sea corals. These papers were outputs from NERC grants Bridging the Timing Gap and Intrigued
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
URL https://news.st-andrews.ac.uk/archive/coral-time-machines-reveal-ancient-co2-burps/
 
Description Probus local business group climate change talk 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Industry/Business
Results and Impact Presentation on climate science and solutions to group of local business leaders "Probus" in NE Fife. This was a follow up request following previous talk to a community group in the area.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
 
Description Production of 4 Geology in a minute videos 
Form Of Engagement Activity A broadcast e.g. TV/radio/film/podcast (other than news/press)
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact GeoBus has a YouTube channel. In June and July 2016 four minute long videos were produced.
* What is the Green House Effect?
*What is Ice-albedo feedback?
* What are the impacts of climate change?
*What's different this time?

These videos are short and designed to answer a specific question related to climate change, they have been watch in countries all over the world and viewing is steadily increasing. A short video means that more people are likely to stop and watch it, by having the titles as questions people are more likely to come across the video when searching online.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016
URL https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC0Sry1dA-hGuThgTKu4iGNg
 
Description Public Show on Climate Change, Explorathon 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact Interactive public talk on climate change, featuring live experiments and demonstrations (and dance!)
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2017
URL https://vimeo.com/261806762
 
Description Public letter to education ministers on school climate curriculum 
Form Of Engagement Activity A press release, press conference or response to a media enquiry/interview
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Policymakers/politicians
Results and Impact As part of my role on the board of the Royal Meteorological Society, I helped draft, and was a signatory to, a public letter urging politicians to improve teaching of climate science in schools
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
 
Description Saints talk on climate change to University alumni and current community 
Form Of Engagement Activity A broadcast e.g. TV/radio/film/podcast (other than news/press)
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact Talk delivered virtually to the University of St Andrews community, with invitation including all alumni and current staff and students. Talked about climate change, past and present, building on research by my group. Great engagement through Q&A and in follow up emails.
Favourite feedback from octogenarian viewers:
"On 18 Nov 2020, at 09:25, Pam&Peter Cantle wrote:

Yesterday. Greatly enjoyed by brother in Toronto (distinguished geologist) and selves in darkest Devon convincing us at last about CC. Many Thanks. Grandson told to sign up for your chemistry for geologists class. He is reading chemistry. Pam Cantle 1957"
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
URL https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EgyOlQLpBkI
 
Description School assembly talk on climate change, St Leonards 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact School assembly on climate change and what to do about it. Follow on discussions on climate education opportunities in schools.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
 
Description School lectures on climate change, Bell Baxter High Eco Day 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact Gave lectures on climate change, past and present, and delivered workshop on teaching about climate to secondary school pupils on their school's Eco Day
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2017
 
Description Serve on the board of the Royal Meteorological Society, Education and Outreach committee 
Form Of Engagement Activity A formal working group, expert panel or dialogue
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact Following success of workshops on climate change, I was asked to join the board of the Royal Meteorological Society's committee on Education and Outreach. This organisation promotes engagement with weather and climate science across the UK, through a wide range of channels including schools and regional interest groups. It is also campaigning for more eduction on climate science in schools. I help guide the direction of these activities through my role on the board, and actively contribute to their development. Some specific examples are listed separately.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2017,2018,2019,2020,2021
URL https://www.rmets.org
 
Description St Andrews University Debating society climate change debate 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Local
Primary Audience Undergraduate students
Results and Impact Part of panel for climate change debate at University debating society, focussing on climate solutions. Range of external experts on panel, student audience.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
 
Description Sutton Trust presentation on climate science 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact Lecture on climate science to academically-minded school students from backgrounds with little exposure to university education.

In these lectures I incorporate examples of the kinds of research done by my group.

Impact realised by students coming to St Andrews who told me they had not previously considered University
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
 
Description Teachers Together conference, climate change workshop 
Form Of Engagement Activity Participation in an activity, workshop or similar
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact Workshop on climate change teaching for teachers from schools across wide range of backgrounds.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2017
 
Description TedX talk on climate change 
Form Of Engagement Activity Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact TedX talk given on Earth Day on climate change. Viewed online over 50,000 times. Follow up requests for newspaper interviews, talks to community groups, school visits
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2018
URL https://www.ted.com/talks/james_rae_climate_change_simple_serious_solvable
 
Description Theatre show on climate change, Byre Theatre 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact Public show on climate change at local theatre, coinciding with national conference. Tickets for 100+ seater venue sold out, thanks to interest sparked by previous events
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2018
URL https://byretheatre.com/events/co2-and-climate-change-past-present-and-future/
 
Description Twitter take over: speak to the Expert 
Form Of Engagement Activity Engagement focused website, blog or social media channel
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Media (as a channel to the public)
Results and Impact GeoBus linked up with the Scottish Governments for Climate week and provide Dr James Rae with a opportunity to take over the GeoBus twitter account. Through out the week schools and the public could ask James questions link to his research. The take over made of 43,000 impressions on twitter, the success has meant we will run a similar take over next year.

As a result of the take over questions were asked that allowed us to further develop our online resources.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016
 
Description UK Science Teachers Conference 
Form Of Engagement Activity Participation in an activity, workshop or similar
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact Exhibit and discussion at UK Science teachers conference, providing hands on examples of how to teach climate change with reference to my work on past climates
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2017
 
Description University of the 3rd Age, Perth, climate change seminar 
Form Of Engagement Activity A talk or presentation
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach Regional
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact Virtual seminar to U3A group, providing exposure to higher education for retirees. Attended virtually by 127 people. Wide range of follow up questions.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
URL https://vimeo.com/453686751
 
Description Workshop at Scottish Association of Geography Teachers Annual Conference 
Form Of Engagement Activity Participation in an activity, workshop or similar
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact Workshop on climate change teaching resources at annual conference of high school geography teachers, in partnership with Geobus, promoting materials developed as part of NERC grant
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2016,2017
URL https://sagteach.org
 
Description • Curriculum development with Royal Meteorological Society for climate education in science classes in schools 
Form Of Engagement Activity A formal working group, expert panel or dialogue
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach National
Primary Audience Schools
Results and Impact Through my role on the Royal Meteorological Society outreach and education board, i pushed for funding of a 9 month project employing two educators to create climate science materials for use in physics and chemistry classes in schools across the UK. I then provided advice and feedback on the development of this material. The end product will be a series of lesson plans and activities that can be easily incorporated into the existing science curriculum. The goal is both to promote engagement with STEM using climate change as a hot topic and a hook, and also to improve teaching of climate science in schools.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
 
Description • Development of St Andrews town museum exhibition for Year of Coasts and Waters 
Form Of Engagement Activity A magazine, newsletter or online publication
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact I coordinated plans for climate science and coastal heritage exhibits for the St Andrews museum (non-University) as part of their Year of Coasts and Waters exhibit. Unfortunately this has been postponed due to COVID19, but would typically have been visited by >1000 national and international visitors
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2020
 
Description • Development of materials on the expedition of the Challenger for University museum 
Form Of Engagement Activity Participation in an open day or visit at my research institution
Part Of Official Scheme? No
Geographic Reach International
Primary Audience Public/other audiences
Results and Impact I helped the University museum develop exhibits on the materials they hold from the Challenger Expedition, which was the first true oceanographic voyage. I have also been invited to follow up events by the museum surrounding these specimens and how they help us understand changes in the oceans and climate.
Year(s) Of Engagement Activity 2019,2020,2021